This encyclopedia brings together more than 200 articles covering established and new concepts of Geophysics across the various sub-disciplines such as Gravity, Geodesy, Geomagnetism, Seismology, Seismics, Deep Earth Processes, Plate Tectonics, Thermal Domains, Computational Methods, etc. in a systematic and consistent format and standard.

Table of Contents

• About the Encyclopedia of Earth Sciences Series
• Contributors
• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• A
• Absolute Age Determinations: Radiometric - Richard W. Carlson
• Archaeomagnetism - Donald H. Tarling
• Archaeoseismology - Klaus-Günter Hinzen
• Artificial Water Reservoir Triggered Earthquakes - Harsh K. Gupta
• B
• Biogeophysics - Lee Slater; Estella Atekwana
• Body Waves - Mahmoud Mohamed Selim Saleh
• C
• Characteristic Earthquakes and Seismic Gaps - David D. Jackson; Yan Y. Kagan
• Continental Drift - Alan G. Smith
• Continental Rifts - A. M. Celâl Şengör
• Core Dynamo - Ulrich R. Christensen
• Core-Mantle Coupling - Paul H. Roberts; Jonathan M. Aurnou
• Crustal Reflectivity (Oceanic) and Magma Chamber - Satish C. Singh
• Curie Temperature - Vincenzo Pasquale
• D
• Deep Scientific Drilling - Ulrich Harms; Harold J. Tobin
• Deep Seismic Reflection and Refraction Profiling - Kabir Roy Chowdhury
• Differential Rotation of the Earth’s Inner Core - Xiaodong Song
• E
• Earth Rotation - Harald Schuh; Sigrid Böhm
• Earth Tides - John M. Wahr
• Earth, Density Distribution - Frank D. Stacey; Paul M. Davis
• Earth’s Structure, Core - Lianxing Wen
• Earth’s Structure, Continental Crust - Rolf Meissner; Hartmut Kern
• Earth’s Structure, Global - Jean-Paul Montagner
• Earth’s Structure, Lower Mantle - Edward J. Garnero; Allen K. McNamara; James A. Tyburczy
• Earth’s Structure, Upper Mantle - Guust Nolet
• Earthquake Lights - John S. Derr; France St-Laurent; Friedemann T. Freund; Robert Thériault
• Earthquake Precursors and Prediction - Seiya Uyeda; Toshiyasu Nagao; Masashi Kamogawa
• Earthquake Prediction, M8 Algorithm - Alik Ismail-Zadeh; Vladimir Kossobokov
• Earthquake Rupture: Inverse Problem - Shamita Das
• Earthquake Sounds - Andrew J. Michael
• Earthquake, Aftershocks - Mian Liu; Seth Stein
• Earthquake, Focal Mechanism - Emile A. Okal
• Earthquake, Foreshocks - Mian Liu
• Earthquake, Location Techniques - Clifford H. Thurber
• Earthquake, Magnitude - Peter Bormann
• Earthquakes and Crustal Deformation - Robert McCaffrey
• Earthquakes, Early and Strong Motion Warning - Richard M. Allen
• Earthquakes, Energy - Domenico Di Giacomo; Peter Bormann
• Earthquakes, Intensity - Gottfried Grünthal
• Earthquakes, PAGER - David J. Wald
• Earthquakes, Shake Map - David J. Wald
• Earthquakes, Source Theory - Raul Madariaga
• Earthquakes, Strong-Ground Motion - Giuliano F. Panza; Cristina La Mura; Fabio Romanelli; Franco Vaccari
• Earthquakes, Volcanogenic - J. W. Neuberg
• Electrical Properties of Rocks - Takashi Yoshino
• Electrical Resistivity Surveys and Data Interpretation - Meng Heng Loke
• Electronic Geophysical Year - William K. Peterson; Daniel N. Baker; C. E. Barton; Peter Fox; M. A. Parsons; Emily A. CoBabe-Ammann
• Energy Budget of the Earth - Jean-Claude Mareschal; Claude Jaupart
• Energy Partitioning of Seismic Waves - Kalachand Sain
• Equatorial Electrojet - Archana Bhattacharyya
• F
• Fractals and Chaos - Vijay P. Dimri; Ravi P. Srivastava; Nimisha Vedanti
• Free Oscillations of the Earth - Sarva Jit Singh; Sunita Rani
• G
• Geodesy, Figure of the Earth - Kusumita Arora
• Geodesy, Ground Positioning and Leveling - Stelios P. Mertikas
• Geodesy, Networks and Reference Systems - Hayo Hase
• Geodesy, Physical - V. Chakravarthi
• Geodetic Pendulums, Horizontal Ultra Broad Band - Carla Braitenberg
• Geodynamics - Alessandro M. Forte
• Geoelectromagnetism - Antal Ádám; László Szarka
• Geoid - Paramesh Banerjee
• Geoid Determination, Theory and Principles - Michael G. Sideris
• Geoid Undulation, Interpretation - Petr Vaníček
• Geoid, Computational Method - Michael G. Sideris
• Geomagnetic Excursions - Martha Schwartz
• Geomagnetic Field, Global Pattern - Susan Macmillan
• Geomagnetic Field, IGRF - Aude Chambodut
• Geomagnetic Field, Measurement Techniques - Mioara Mandea; Anca Isac
• Geomagnetic Field, Polarity Reversals - Carlo Laj
• Geomagnetic Field, Secular Variation - Monika Korte
• Geomagnetic Field, Theory - Friedrich H. Busse
• Geophysical Well Logging - Miroslav Kobr
• Geothermal Heat Pumps - Ladislaus Rybach
• Geothermal Record of Climate Change - Michael G. Davis; David S. Chapman; Robert N. Harris
• GPS, Data Acquisition and Analysis - Carine Bruyninx; Wim Aerts; Juliette Legrand
• GPS, Tectonic Geodesy - Jeffrey T. Freymueller
• Gravimeters - Andrew Hugill
• Gravity Anomalies, Interpretation - Mikhail K. Kaban
• Gravity Data, Advanced Processing - Christopher J. Swain; Jonathan F. Kirby
• Gravity Data, Regional – Residual Separation - Kumarendra Mallick; Anthwar Vasanthi; Krishna Kant Sharma
• Gravity Field of the Earth - Christopher Jekeli
• Gravity Field, Temporal Variations from Space Techniques - Anny Cazenave; G. Ramillien; Richard Biancale
• Gravity Field, Time Variations from Surface Measurements - Virendra M. Tiwari; Jacques Hinderer
• Gravity Measurements, Absolute - Mark A. Zumberge
• Gravity Method, Airborne - Uwe Meyer
• Gravity Method, Principles - Hans-Jürgen Götze
• Gravity Method, Satellite - Georges Balmino
• Gravity Method, Surface - Dinesh Chandra Mishra; Virendra M. Tiwari
• Gravity Modeling, Theory and Computation - Jean-Pierre Barriot; Lydie Sichoix
• Gravity, Data to Anomalies - Ron Hackney
• Gravity, Global Models - Nikolaos K. Pavlis
• Gravity, Gradiometry - Christopher Jekeli
• Great Earthquakes - Roger M. W. Musson
• H
• Heat Flow Measurements, Continental - John H. Sass; Graeme Beardsmore
• Heat Flow, Continental - Paul Morgan
• Heat Flow, Seafloor: Methods and Observations - Earl E. Davis; Andrew T. Fisher
• I
• Impact Craters on Earth - Richard A. F. Grieve; Gordon R. Osinski
• Instrumentation, Electrical Resistivity - Meng H. Loke; Jonathan E. Chambers; Oliver Kuras
• Instrumentation, EM - Steven Constable
• International Geophysical Year - Ralph W. Baird
• International Gravity Formula - Hans-Jürgen Götze
• International Polar Year 2007–2008 - David J. Carlson
• International Year of Planet Earth - Eduardo F. J. de Mulder; Wolfgang Eder
• Inverse Theory, Artificial Neural Networks - William A. Sandham; David J. Hamilton
• Inverse Theory, Global Optimization - Mrinal K. Sen; Paul L. Stoffa
• Inverse Theory, Linear - Pravin K. Gupta
• Inverse Theory, Monte Carlo Method - Malcolm Sambridge; Kerry Gallagher
• Inverse Theory, Singular Value Decomposition - Ajay Manglik
• Isostasy - Anthony B. Watts
• Isostasy, Thermal - David S. Chapman; Derrick Hasterok
• L
• Legal Continental Shelf - Ray Wood; Stuart A. Henrys; Vaughan Stagpoole; Bryan Davy; Ian Wright
• Lithosphere, Continental - David E. James
• Lithosphere, Continental: Thermal Structure - Claude Jaupart; Jean-Claude Mareschal
• Lithosphere, Mechanical Properties - Evgueni Burov
• Lithosphere, Oceanic - James McClain
• Lithosphere, Oceanic: Thermal Structure - Earl E. Davis; David S. Chapman
• M
• Magnetic Anisotropy - Leonardo Sagnotti
• Magnetic Anomalies, Interpretation - Erwan Thébault
• Magnetic Data Enhancements and Depth Estimation - Clive Foss
• Magnetic Domains - Susan L. Halgedahl
• Magnetic Gradiometry - Harald von der Osten-Woldenburg
• Magnetic Methods, Airborne - Mike Dentith
• Magnetic Methods, Principles - Kusumita Arora
• Magnetic Methods, Satellite - Dhananjay Ravat
• Magnetic Methods, Surface - Nandini Nagarajan
• Magnetic Modeling, Theory and Computation - Mioara Mandea; Carmen Gaina; Vincent Lesur
• Magnetic Storms and Electromagnetic Pulsations - Gurbax S. Lakhina; Bruce T. Tsurutani
• Magnetic, Global Anomaly Map - Kumar Hemant Singh
• Magnetometers - Ivan Hrvoic
• Magnetotelluric Data Processing - Gary Egbert
• Magnetotelluric Interpretation - John F. Hermance
• Magnetovariation Studies - Nandini Nagarajan
• Mantle Convection - David Bercovici
• Mantle D′′ Layer - Thorne Lay
• Mantle Plumes - Cinzia G. Farnetani; Albrecht W. Hofmann
• Mantle Viscosity - W. R. Peltier
• N
• Numerical Methods, Boundary Element - Michele Cooke
• Numerical Methods, Domain Decomposition - Alfio Quarteroni; Luca Formaggia
• Numerical Methods, Finite Difference - Johan O. A. Robertsson; Joakim O. Blanch
• Numerical Methods, Finite Element - J. N. Reddy
• Numerical Methods, Multigrid - Wim A. Mulder
• O
• Ocean Bottom Seismics - Ingo A. Pecher; Jörg Bialas; Ernst R. Flueh
• Ocean, Spreading Centre - K. S. Krishna
• Oceanic Intraplate Deformation: The Central Indian Ocean Basin - D. Gopala Rao; D. A. Bhaskara Rao
• P
• Paleomagnetic Field Intensity - Andrew Biggin; Neil Suttie; John Shaw
• Paleomagnetism, Magnetostratigraphy - Donald R. Prothero
• Paleomagnetism, Measurement Techniques and Instrumentation - Tallavajhala Radhakrishna; J. D. A. Piper
• Paleomagnetism, Polar Wander - Jean Besse; Vincent Courtillot; Marianne Greff
• Paleomagnetism, Principles - William Lowrie
• Paleoseismology - Shinji Toda
• Plate Driving Forces - Alessandro M. Forte
• Plate Motions in Time: Inferences on Driving and Resisting Forces - Giampiero Iaffaldano; Hans-Peter Bunge
• Plate Tectonics, Precambrian - Y. J. Bhaskar Rao; E. V. S. S. K. Babu
• Plates and Paleoreconstructions - Alan G. Smith
• Poroelasticity - Ran Bachrach
• Propagation of Elastic Waves: Fundamentals - Francisco J. Sánchez-Sesma; Ursula Iturrarán-Viveros
• R
• Radioactivity in Earth’s Core - V. Rama Murthy
• Radiogenic Heat Production of Rocks - Christoph Clauser
• Remanent Magnetism - Laurie Brown; Suzanne McEnroe
• Remote Sensing and GIS Techniques for Tectonic Studies - Semere Solomon; Woldai Ghebreab
• Remote Sensing, Applications to Geophysics - Hojjatollah Ranjbar
• S
• SAR Interferometry - Masato Furuya
• Satellite Laser Ranging - David Coulot; Florent Deleflie; Pascal Bonnefond; Pierre Exertier; Olivier Laurain; Bertrand de Saint-Jean
• Seafloor Spreading - Richard N. Hey
• Sedimentary Basins - Magdalena Scheck-Wenderoth
• Seismic Anisotropy - Thorsten W. Becker
• Seismic Data Acquisition and Processing - Kabir Roy Chowdhury
• Seismic Diffraction - Enru Liu
• Seismic Discontinuities in the Transition Zone - Lev P. Vinnik
• Seismic Hazard - Andrzej Kijko
• Seismic Imaging, Overview - Gerard T. Schuster
• Seismic Instrumentation - Duncan Carr Agnew
• Seismic Microzonation - Fumio Yamazaki; Yoshihisa Maruyama
• Seismic Monitoring of Nuclear Explosions - Paul G. Richards; Wu Zhongliang
• Seismic Noise - Dhananjay Kumar; Imtiaz Ahmed
• Seismic Phase Names: IASPEI Standard - Dmitry A. Storchak; Johannes Schweitzer; Peter Bormann
• Seismic Properties of Rocks - Nikolas I. Christensen
• Seismic Quiescence and Activation - Gennady Sobolev
• Seismic Seiches - Art McGarr
• Seismic Signals in Well Observations: Pre, Co, Post - R. K. Chadha
• Seismic Structure at Mid-Ocean Ridges - Donald W. Forsyth
• Seismic Tomography - Guust Nolet
• Seismic Velocity-Density Relationships - Kalachand Sain
• Seismic Velocity-Temperature Relationships - Kalachand Sain
• Seismic Wave Propagation in Real Media: Numerical Modeling Approaches - Ursula Iturrarán-Viveros; Francisco J. Sánchez-Sesma
• Seismic Waves, Scattering - Ludovic Margerin
• Seismic Zonation - Yanxiang Yu; Mengtan Gao; Guangyin Xu
• Seismic, Ambient Noise Correlation - Michel Campillo; Philippe Roux; Nikolai M. Shapiro
• Seismic, Migration - Samuel H. Gray
• Seismic, Ray Theory - Vlastislav Červený; Ivan Pšenčík
• Seismic, Receiver Function Technique - Rainer Kind; Xiaohui Yuan
• Seismic, Reflectivity Method - Mrinal K. Sen
• Seismic, Viscoelastic Attenuation - Vernon F. Cormier
• Seismic, Waveform Modeling and Tomography - Yanghua Wang
• Seismicity, Intraplate - Paul Bodin
• Seismicity, Subduction Zone - Akira Hasegawa
• Seismogram Interpretation - Ota Kulhanek; Leif Persson
• Seismological Networks - Eric Robert Engdahl; István Bondár
• Seismology, Global Earthquake Model - Peter Suhadolc
• Seismology, Monitoring of CTBT - Wu Zhongliang; Paul G. Richards
• Seismology, Rotational - William H. K. Lee
• Shear-Wave Splitting: New Geophysics and Earthquake Stress-Forecasting - Stuart Crampin
• Single and Multichannel Seismics - Tamás Tóth
• Slow Earthquake - Teruyuki Kato
• Spherical Harmonic Analysis Applied to Potential Fields - Nikolaos K. Pavlis
• Statistical Seismology - David A. Rhoades
• Subduction Zones - Geoffrey A. Abers
• Surface Waves - Barbara Romanowicz
• T
• T Waves - Emile A. Okal
• Thermal Storage and Transport Properties of Rocks, I: Heat Capacity and Latent Heat - Christoph Clauser
• Thermal Storage and Transport Properties of Rocks, II: Thermal Conductivity and Diffusivity - Christoph Clauser
• Time Reversal in Seismology - Carène Larmat; Clarence S. Clay
• Traveltime Tomography Using Controlled-Source Seismic Data - Colin A. Zelt
• Tsunami - Steven N. Ward
• Tsunami: Bay of Bengal - Vineet Gahalaut
• Tsunami Watch and Warning Centers - Shailesh R. Nayak; Srinivasa Kumar Tummala
• V
• Vertical Seismic Profiling - James W. Rector III; Maria-Daphne Mangriotis
• Very Long Baseline Interferometry - Helmut Wiesemeyer; Axel Nothnagel
• W
• Wavelet Analysis - Mikhail Kulesh