It covers all scales of biological organization, from organisms, to populations, to communities and ecosystems. Laboratory, field, simulation modelling, and theoretical approaches are presented to show how living systems sustain structure and function in space and time. New areas of focus include micro- and macro scales, molecular and genetic ecology, and global ecology (e.g., climate change, earth transformations, ecosystem services, and the food-water-energy nexus) are included.

Table of Contents

• Editorial Board
• Dedication
• Preface
• Permissions Acknowledgment
• Volume 1
• Aquatic Ecology: Abundance Biomass Comparison Method
• Aquatic Ecology: Acidification in Aquatic Systems
• Aquatic Ecology: Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment
• Aquatic Ecology: Dead Zones: Low Oxygen in Coastal Waters
• Aquatic Ecology: Deep-Sea Ecology
• Aquatic Ecology: Ecosystem Health Indicators—Freshwater Environments
• Aquatic Ecology: Equilibrium Concept in Phytoplankton Communities
• Aquatic Ecology: Estuarine Ecohydrology
• Aquatic Ecology: The Estuarine Quality Paradox Concept
• Aquatic Ecology: Eutrophication
• Aquatic Ecology: Freshwater Aquaculture
• Aquatic Ecology: Intertidal Zonation
• Aquatic Ecology: Maximum Sustainable Yield
• Aquatic Ecology: Micro- and Macroplastics in Aquatic Ecosystems
• Aquatic Ecology: Microbial Communities
• Behavioral Ecology: Age Structure and Population Dynamics
• Behavioral Ecology: Altruism
• Behavioral Ecology: Animal Home Ranges
• Behavioral Ecology: Anti-Predation Behavior
• Biological Rhythms
• Behavioral Ecology: Competition
• Behavioral Ecology: Dispersal–Migration
• Behavioral Ecology: Dominance Hierarchy
• Behavioral Ecology: Environmental Stress and Evolutionary Change
• Behavioral Ecology: Food Specialization
• Behavioral Ecology: Habitat Mapping
• Behavioral Ecology: Habitat Selection and Habitat Suitability Preferences
• Behavioral Ecology: Herbivore-Predator Cycles
• Behavioral Ecology: Imprinting
• Behavioral Ecology: Kin Selection
• Behavioral Ecology: Learning
• Behavioral Ecology: The Marginal Value Theorem in a Nutshell
• Behavioral Ecology: Mating Systems
• Behavioral Ecology: Optimal Foraging Theory
• Behavioral Ecology: Orientation, Navigation, and Search
• Behavioral Ecology: Parental Care
• Behavioral Ecology: Sexual Selection and Sexual Conflict
• Behavioral Ecology: Social Behavior and Interactions
• Behavioral Ecology: Thermoregulation in Animals: Some Fundamentals of Thermal Biology
• Conservation Ecology: Biodiversity Indices
• Conservation Ecology: Biological Integrity
• Conservation Ecology: Biomagnification
• Conservation Ecology: Biotopes
• Conservation Ecology: Connectivity and Ecological Networks
• Conservation Ecology: Conservation Biological Control and Biopesticides in Agricultural
• Conservation Ecology: Conservation Genetics
• Conservation Ecology: Ecological Health Indicators
• Conservation Ecology: Ecological Risk Assessment
• Conservation Ecology: Ecosystem Health Indicators
• Conservation Ecology: Ecotoxicology: The History and Present Direction
• Conservation Ecology: Endangered Species
• Invasive Plant Species
• Conservation Ecology: k-Dominance Curves
• Conservation Ecology: Polychaetes/Amphipode Index
• Conservation Ecology: Protected Area
• Conservation Ecology: Reintroduction
• Conservation Ecology: Source–Sink Landscape
• Conservation Ecology: Spatial Subsidy
• Conservation Ecology: System Omnivory Index
• Conservation Ecology: Trophic Classification for Lakes
• Conservation Ecology: Trophic Index and Efficiency
• Conservation Ecology: Turnover Time
• Conservation Ecology: Wildlife Ecology
• Ecological Complexity: Cellular Automata
• Ecological Complexity: Chaos
• Ecological Complexity: Citizen Science
• Ecological Complexity: Complex Ecological Networks
• Ecological Complexity: Complex Systems
• Ecological Complexity: Cybernetics
• Ecological Complexity: Ecological Data Archiving and Sharing
• Ecological Complexity: Ecological Indicators: Connectance and Connectivity
• Ecological Complexity: Ecological Informatics: Overview
• Ecological Complexity: Emergent Properties
• Ecological Complexity: Goal Functions and Orientors
• Hierarchy Theory in Ecology
• Ecological Complexity: Panarchy
• Ecological Complexity: Population Dynamics: Stability
• Ecological Complexity: Self-Organization
• Ecological Complexity: Systems Ecology
• Systems Ecology: Ecological Network Analysis
• Ecological Complexity: Thermodynamics in Ecology
• Volume 2
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Agriculture Models
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Big Data for Ecological Models
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Biogeochemical Models
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Carbon Biogeochemical Cycle and Consequences of Climate Changes
• Climate Change Models
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Conceptual Diagrams and Flow Diagrams
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Ecological Models: Individual-Based Models
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Ecological Models: Model Development and Analysis
• Forest Models
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Fuzzy Models
• Grassland Models
• Lake Models
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Mediated Modeling and Participatory Modeling
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Metapopulation Models
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Model Types: Overview
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Modeling Dispersal Processes for Ecological Systems
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Modules and Integrated Modeling
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Parameterization
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Sensitivity, Calibration, Validation, Verification
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Spatial Models and Geographic Information Systems
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Species Distribution Modeling
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Statistical Inference
• Structural Dynamic Models
• Ecological Data Analysis and Modelling: Visualization as a Tool for Ecological Analysis
• Watershed Models
• Ecological Processes: Acidification
• Ecological Processes: Allometric Theory: Extrapolations From Individuals to Ecosystems
• Ecological Processes: Ammonification
• Biological Nitrogen Fixation
• Ecological Processes: Decomposition and Mineralization
• Ecological Processes: Erosion
• Ecological Processes: Evapotranspiration
• Ecological Processes: Evolutionary Ecology: Evolution of Parasitism
• Fermentation
• Ecological Processes: Grazing
• Ecological Processes: Greenhouse Gases Formation and Emission
• Ecological Processes: Gross and Net Production in Different Environments
• Ecological Processes: Light Extinction
• Nitrification
• Ecological Processes: Physical Transport Processes in Ecology: Advection, Diffusion, and Dispersion
• Ecological Processes: Predation and Its Effects on Individuals: From Individual to Species
• Ecological Processes: Succession and Colonization
• Ecological Processes: Volatilization
• Ecological Processes: Waves as an Ecological Process
• Wind Effects
• Ecosystems: Agriculture Systems
• Alpine Ecosystems and the High-Elevation Treeline
• Ecosystems: Caves
• Ecosystems: Chaparral
• Ecosystems: Coral Reefs
• Ecosystems: Desert Streams
• Deserts
• Dunes
• Ecosystems
• Ecosystems: Ecosystems: The Boreal Forest Ecosystem
• Ecosystems: Estuaries
• Ecosystems: Floodplains
• Forest Plantations
• Freshwater Lakes
• Ecosystems: Freshwater Marshes
• Ecosystems: Greenhouses, Microcosms, and Mesocosms
• Ecosystems: Lagoons
• Ecosystems: Mangrove Wetlands
• Ecosystems: Peatlands
• Ecosystems: Polar Terrestrial Ecology
• Ecosystems: Riparian Wetlands
• Rivers and Streams: Ecosystem Dynamics and Integrating Paradigms
• Ecosystems: Rivers and Streams: Physical Setting and Adapted Biota
• Ecosystems: Rocky Intertidal Zone
• Ecosystems: Salt Marshes
• Ecosystems: Savanna
• Steppes and Prairies
• Ecosystems: Swamps
• Temperate Forest
• Ecosystems: Temporary Waters
• Ecosystems: Tropical Ecology
• Ecosystems: Tropical Rainforest
• Ecosystems: Tropical Seasonal Forest
• Ecosystems: Tundra
• Ecosystems: Upwelling Ecosystems
• Volume 3
• Evolutionary Ecology: Adaptation
• Evolutionary Ecology: Allee Effects
• Evolutionary Ecology: Association
• Evolutionary Ecology: Body Size, Energetics, and Evolution
• Evolutionary Ecology: Clines
• Evolutionary Ecology: Coevolution
• Evolutionary Ecology: Coexistence
• Evolutionary Ecology: Colonization
• Evolutionary Ecology: Dominance and Its Evolution
• Evolutionary Ecology: Eco-Evolutionary Dynamics
• Evolutionary Ecology: Eco-Immunology: Past, Present, and Future
• Evolutionary Ecology: Ecological Niche
• Evolutionary Ecology: Endemism
• Evolutionary Ecology: Evolutionary Ecology
• Evolutionary Ecology: Fecundity
• Fitness
• Evolutionary Ecology: Gause's Competitive Exclusion Principle
• Evolutionary Ecology: Genetic Drift
• Evolutionary Ecology: Hardy–Weinberg Equilibrium
• Evolutionary Ecology: Isolation
• Evolutionary Ecology: Life-History Patterns
• Evolutionary Ecology: Limiting Factors and Liebig's Principle
• Evolutionary Ecology: Macroevolution
• Evolutionary Ecology: Metacommunities
• Evolutionary Ecology: Metagenomics
• Evolutionary Ecology: Microbiomes and Holobionts
• Natural Selection
• Evolutionary Ecology: Phylogenomics and Phylogenetics
• Evolutionary Ecology: Pioneer Species
• Evolutionary Ecology: Red Queen Dynamics
• Evolutionary Ecology: r-Strategists/K-Strategists
• Evolutionary Ecology: Units of Selection
• General Ecology: Abundance Biomass Comparison MethodAbundance
• General Ecology: Age-Class Models
• General Ecology: Allopatry
• General Ecology: Animal Physiology
• General Ecology: Applied Ecology
• General Ecology: Biodiversity
• General Ecology: Biomass
• General Ecology: Carrying Capacity
• General Ecology: Communication
• General Ecology: Community
• General Ecology: Conbiota
• General Ecology: Cooperation
• General Ecology: Demography
• General Ecology: Detritus
• General Ecology: Dominance
• General Ecology: Dormancy
• General Ecology: Ecological Effects of Acidic Deposition
• Ecological Efficiency
• General Ecology: Ecological Stoichiometry: Overview
• General Ecology: Ecophysiology
• Ecosystems
• General Ecology: Edaphic Factor
• General Ecology: Endotherm
• General Ecology: Epiflora and Epifauna
• General Ecology: Generation Time
• General Ecology: Growth Constraints: Michaelis–Menten Equation and Liebig’s Law
• General Ecology: Growth Models
• General Ecology: Habitat
• General Ecology: History of Ecology
• General Ecology: Homeotherms
• General Ecology: Hunting
• General Ecology: The Intermediate Disturbance Hypothesis
• Keystone Species and Keystoneness
• General Ecology: Leaf Area Index
• General Ecology: Metabolic Theories in Ecology: The Dynamic Energy Budget Theory and the Metabolic Theory of Ecology
• General Ecology: Microclimate
• General Ecology: Migration and Movement
• General Ecology: Monocultures Versus Polycultures
• General Ecology: Numerical Ecology
• General Ecology: Paleoecology
• Parasites
• Philosophy of Ecology: Overview
• General Ecology: Phytosociology
• General Ecology: Plant Ecology
• General Ecology: Plant Physiology
• General Ecology: Poikilotherms
• General Ecology: Pollination
• General Ecology: Principal Components Analysis
• General Ecology: Rhizosphere Ecology
• General Ecology: Salinity
• General Ecology: Scavengers
• General Ecology: Seasonality
• General Ecology: Seed Dispersal
• General Ecology: Soil Ecology
• General Ecology: Stable Isotope Ecology
• General Ecology: Succession
• General Ecology: Suspension Feeders
• General Ecology: Synecology
• General Ecology: Temperature Regulation
• General Ecology: Tolerance Range
• General Ecology: Trophic Structure
• General Ecology: Water Availability
• Volume 4
• Anthropospheric and Anthropogenic Impact on the Biosphere
• Biogeocoenosis as an Elementary Unit of Biogeochemical Work in the Biosphere
• Global Change Ecology: Biosphere: Vernadsky’s Concept
• Climate Change 2: Long-Term Dynamics
• Deforestation
• The Earth System and Climate Science: Understanding a Very Complex Entity
• Global Change Ecology: Emergence of Climate Change Ecology
• Energy Balance
• Global Change Ecology: Energy Flows in the Biosphere
• Entropy and Entropy Flows in the Biosphere
• Global Change Ecology: Environmental and Biospheric Impacts of Nuclear War
• Gaia Hypothesis
• Global Carbon Cycle 1: Short-Term Dynamics
• Global Change Ecology: Global Negative Emission Land Use Scenarios and Their Ecological Implications
• Information and Information Flows in the Biosphere
• Iron Cycle
• Global Change Ecology: Material and Metal Ecology
• Global Change Ecology: Microbial Cycles
• Nitrogen Cycle
• Global Change Ecology: Noosphere
• Oxygen Cycle
• Global Change Ecology: Paleoclimatology
• Global Change Ecology: Pedosphere
• Phenomenon of Life: General Aspects
• Phosphorus Cycle
• Sulfur Cycle
• Sustainable Cropping Systems
• Global Change Ecology: Urbanization as a Biospheric Process: Carbon, Nitrogen, and Energy Fluxes
• Global Change Ecology: Water Cycle
• Xenobiotic (Pesticides, PCB, Dioxins) Cycles
• Human Ecology and Sustainability: Adaptive Management and Integrative Assessments
• Human Ecology and Sustainability: The Anthropocene
• Biophilia
• Human Ecology and Sustainability: Carbon Footprint
• Ecological Economics 1
• Human Ecology and Sustainability: Ecological Economics 2
• Ecological Footprint
• Ecological Systems Thinking
• Human Ecology and Sustainability: Ecosystem Services Evaluation
• Human Ecology and Sustainability: Emergy and Sustainability
• Human Ecology and Sustainability: Emergy Ecosystems and Network Analysis
• Human Ecology and Sustainability: Environmental Protection and Ecology
• The Genuine Progress Indicator: A Measure of Net Economic Welfare
• Human Ecology: Overview
• Human Population Growth
• Human Ecology and Sustainability: Industrial Ecology
• Life-Cycle Assessment
• Human Ecology and Sustainability: Limits to Growth
• Human Ecology and Sustainability: Nitrogen Footprints
• Ozone Layer
• Human Ecology and Sustainability: Political Ecology
• Precaution and Ecological Risk
• Remote Sensing
• Human Ecology and Sustainability: Resilience
• Socioecological Systems
• Human Ecology and Sustainability: The Sustainable Development Goals
• Human Ecology and Sustainability: System Sustainability
• Human Ecology and Sustainability: Tragedy of the Ecological Commons
• Human Ecology and Sustainability: Urban Metabolism
• Urban Systems
• Human Ecology and Sustainability: The Water-Energy-Food-Ecosystems (WEFE) Nexus
• Terrestrial and Landscape Ecology: Agroforestry
• Anthropogenic Landscapes
• Terrestrial and Landscape Ecology: Buffer Zones
• Classical and Augmentative Biological Control
• Terrestrial and Landscape Ecology: Ecological Engineering: Design Principles
• Terrestrial and Landscape Ecology: Ecological Engineering: Overview
• Forestry Management
• Integrated Farming Systems
• Terrestrial and Landscape Ecology: Island Biogeography
• Terrestrial and Landscape Ecology: Landscape Ecology
• Landscape Planning
• Microcosms
• Terrestrial and Landscape Ecology: Organic Farming
• Terrestrial and Landscape Ecology: Permaculture
• Terrestrial and Landscape Ecology: Phytoremediation
• Terrestrial and Landscape Ecology: Plant Demography
• Spatial Distribution
• Terrestrial and Landscape Ecology: Thermodynamic Properties of Landscape Cover