This book presents a comprehensive and up-to-date account of the theory (physical principles), design, and practical implementations of various sensors for scientific, industrial, and consumer applications.

Table of Contents

• Preface
• About the Author
• 1 Data Acquisition
• 1.1 Sensors, Signals, and Systems
• 1.2 Sensor Classification
• 1.3 Units of Measurements
• References
• 2 Transfer Functions
• 2.1 Mathematical Models
• 2.1.1 Concept
• 2.1.2 Functional Approximations
• 2.1.3 Linear Regression
• 2.1.4 Polynomial Approximations
• 2.1.5 Sensitivity
• 2.1.6 Linear Piecewise Approximation
• 2.1.7 Spline Interpolation
• 2.1.8 Multidimensional Transfer Functions
• 2.2 Calibration
• 2.3 Computation of Parameters
• 2.4 Computation of a Stimulus
• 2.4.1 Use of Analytical Equation
• 2.4.2 Use of Linear Piecewise Approximation
• 2.4.3 Iterative Computation of Stimulus (Newton Method)
• References
• 3 Sensor Characteristics
• 3.1 Sensors for Mobile Communication Devices
• 3.1.1 Requirements to MCD Sensors
• 3.1.2 Integration
• 3.2 Span (Full-Scale Input)
• 3.3 Full-Scale Output
• 3.4 Accuracy
• 3.5 Calibration Error
• 3.6 Hysteresis
• 3.7 Nonlinearity
• 3.8 Saturation
• 3.9 Repeatability
• 3.10 Dead Band
• 3.11 Resolution
• 3.12 Special Properties
• 3.13 Output Impedance
• 3.14 Output Format
• 3.15 Excitation
• 3.16 Dynamic Characteristics
• 3.17 Dynamic Models of Sensor Elements
• 3.17.1 Mechanical Elements
• 3.17.2 Thermal Elements
• 3.17.3 Electrical Elements
• 3.17.4 Analogies
• 3.18 Environmental Factors
• 3.19 Reliability
• 3.19.1 MTTF
• 3.19.2 Extreme Testing
• 3.19.3 Accelerated Life Testing
• 3.20 Application Characteristics
• 3.21 Uncertainty
• References
• 4 Physical Principles of Sensing
• 4.1 Electric Charges, Fields, and Potentials
• 4.2 Capacitance
• 4.2.1 Capacitor
• 4.2.2 Dielectric Constant
• 4.3 Magnetism
• 4.3.1 Faraday Law
• 4.3.2 Permanent Magnets
• 4.3.3 Coil and Solenoid
• 4.4 Induction
• 4.4.1 Lenz Law
• 4.4.2 Eddy Currents
• 4.5 Resistance
• 4.5.1 Specific Resistivity
• 4.5.2 Temperature Sensitivity of a Resistor
• 4.5.3 Strain Sensitivity of a Resistor
• 4.5.4 Moisture Sensitivity of a Resistor
• 4.6 Piezoelectric Effect
• 4.6.1 Ceramic Piezoelectric Materials
• 4.6.2 Polymer Piezoelectric Films
• 4.7 Pyroelectric Effect
• 4.8 Hall Effect
• 4.9 Thermoelectric Effects
• 4.9.1 Seebeck Effect
• 4.9.2 Peltier Effect
• 4.10 Sound Waves
• 4.11 Temperature and Thermal Properties of Materials
• 4.11.1 Temperature Scales
• 4.11.2 Thermal Expansion
• 4.11.3 Heat Capacity
• 4.12 Heat Transfer
• 4.12.1 Thermal Conduction
• 4.12.2 Thermal Convection
• 4.12.3 Thermal Radiation
• References
• 5 Optical Components of Sensors
• 5.1 Light
• 5.1.1 Energy of Light Quanta
• 5.1.2 Light Polarization
• 5.2 Light Scattering
• 5.3 Geometrical Optics
• 5.4 Radiometry
• 5.5 Photometry
• 5.6 Windows
• 5.7 Mirrors
• 5.7.1 Coated Mirrors
• 5.7.2 Prismatic Mirrors
• 5.8 Lenses
• 5.8.1 Curved Surface Lenses
• 5.8.2 Fresnel Lenses
• 5.8.3 Flat Nanolenses
• 5.9 Fiber Optics and Waveguides
• 5.10 Optical Efficiency
• 5.10.1 Lensing Effect
• 5.10.2 Concentrators
• 5.10.3 Coatings for Thermal Absorption
• 5.10.4 Antireflective Coating (ARC)
• References
• 6 Interface Electronic Circuits
• 6.1 Signal Conditioners
• 6.1.1 Input Characteristics
• 6.1.2 Amplifiers
• 6.1.3 Operational Amplifiers
• 6.1.4 Voltage Follower
• 6.1.5 Charge- and Current-to-Voltage Converters
• 6.1.6 Light-to-Voltage Converters
• 6.1.7 Capacitance-to-Voltage Converters
• 6.1.8 Closed-Loop Capacitance-to-Voltage Converters
• 6.2 Sensor Connections
• 6.2.1 Ratiometric Circuits
• 6.2.2 Differential Circuits
• 6.2.3 Wheatstone Bridge
• 6.2.4 Null-Balanced Bridge
• 6.2.5 Bridge Amplifiers
• 6.3 Excitation Circuits
• 6.3.1 Current Generators
• 6.3.2 Voltage Generators
• 6.3.3 Voltage References
• 6.3.4 Oscillators
• 6.4 Analog-to-Digital Converters
• 6.4.1 Basic Concepts
• 6.4.2 V/F Converters
• 6.4.3 PWM Converters
• 6.4.4 R/F Converters
• 6.4.5 Successive-Approximation Converter
• 6.4.6 Resolution Extension
• 6.4.7 ADC Interface
• 6.5 Integrated Interfaces
• 6.5.1 Voltage Processor
• 6.5.2 Inductance Processor
• 6.6 Data Transmission
• 6.6.1 Two-Wire Transmission
• 6.6.2 Four-Wire Transmission
• 6.7 Noise in Sensors and Circuits
• 6.7.1 Inherent Noise
• 6.7.2 Transmitted Noise
• 6.7.3 Electric Shielding
• 6.7.4 Bypass Capacitors
• 6.7.5 Magnetic Shielding
• 6.7.6 Mechanical Noise
• 6.7.7 Ground Planes
• 6.7.8 Ground Loops and Ground Isolation
• 6.7.9 Seebeck Noise
• 6.8 Batteries for Low-Power Sensors
• 6.8.1 Primary Cells
• 6.8.2 Secondary Cells
• 6.8.3 Supercapacitors
• 6.9 Energy Harvesting
• 6.9.1 Light Energy Harvesting
• 6.9.2 Far-Field Energy Harvesting
• 6.9.3 Near-Field Energy Harvesting
• References
• 7 Detectors of Humans
• 7.1 Ultrasonic Detectors
• 7.2 Microwave Motion Detectors
• 7.3 Micropower Impulse Radars
• 7.4 Ground Penetrating Radars
• 7.5 Linear Optical Sensors (PSD)
• 7.6 Capacitive Occupancy Detectors
• 7.7 Triboelectric Detectors
• 7.8 Optoelectronic Motion Detectors
• 7.8.1 Sensor Structures
• 7.8.2 Multiple Detecting Elements
• 7.8.3 Complex Sensor Shape
• 7.8.4 Image Distortion
• 7.8.5 Facet Focusing Elements
• 7.8.6 Visible and Near-IR Light Motion Detectors
• 7.8.7 Mid- and Far-IR Detectors
• 7.8.8 Passive Infrared (PIR) Motion Detectors
• 7.8.9 PIR Detector Efficiency Analysis
• 7.9 Optical Presence Sensors
• 7.9.1 Photoelectric Beam
• 7.9.2 Light Reflection Detectors
• 7.10 Pressure-Gradient Sensors
• 7.11 2-D Pointing Devices
• 7.12 Gesture Sensing (3-D Pointing)
• 7.12.1 Inertial and Gyroscopic Mice
• 7.12.2 Optical Gesture Sensors
• 7.12.3 Near-Field Gesture Sensors
• 7.13 Tactile Sensors
• 7.13.1 Switch Sensors
• 7.13.2 Piezoelectric Tactile Sensors
• 7.13.3 Piezoresistive Tactile Sensors
• 7.13.4 Tactile MEMS Sensors
• 7.13.5 Capacitive Touch Sensors
• 7.13.6 Optical Touch Sensors
• 7.13.7 Optical Fingerprint Sensors
• References
• 8 Presence, Displacement, and Level
• 8.1 Potentiometric Sensors
• 8.2 Piezoresistive Sensors
• 8.3 Capacitive Sensors
• 8.4 Inductive and Magnetic Sensors
• 8.4.1 LVDT and RVDT
• 8.4.2 Transverse Inductive Sensor
• 8.4.3 Eddy Current Probes
• 8.4.4 Pavement Loops
• 8.4.5 Metal Detectors
• 8.4.6 Hall-Effect Sensors
• 8.4.7 Magnetoresistive Sensors
• 8.4.8 Magnetostrictive Detector
• 8.5 Optical Sensors
• 8.5.1 Optical Bridge
• 8.5.2 Proximity Detector with Polarized Light
• 8.5.3 Prismatic and Reflective Sensors
• 8.5.4 Fabry-Perot Sensors
• 8.5.5 Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors
• 8.5.6 Grating Photomodulators
• 8.6 Thickness and Level Sensors
• 8.6.1 Ablation Sensors
• 8.6.2 Film Sensors
• 8.6.3 Cryogenic Liquid Level Sensors
• References
• 9 velocity and acceleration
• 9.1 stationary velocity sensors
• 9.1.1 Linear Velocity
• 9.1.2 Rotary Velocity Sensors (Tachometers)
• 9.2 Inertial Rotary Sensors
• 9.2.1 Rotor Gyroscope
• 9.2.2 Vibrating Gyroscopes
• 9.2.3 Optical (Laser) Gyroscopes
• 9.3 Inertial Linear Sensors (Accelerometers)
• 9.3.1 Transfer Function and Characteristics
• 9.3.2 Inclinometers
• 9.3.3 Seismic Sensors
• 9.3.4 Capacitive Accelerometers
• 9.3.5 Piezoresistive Accelerometers
• 9.3.6 Piezoelectric Accelerometers
• 9.3.7 Thermal Accelerometers
• 9.3.8 Closed-Loop Accelerometers
• References
• 10 Force and Strain
• 10.1 Basic Considerations
• 10.2 Strain Gauges
• 10.3 Pressure-Sensitive Films
• 10.4 Piezoelectric Force Sensors
• 10.5 Piezoelectric Cables
• 10.6 Optical Force Sensors
• References
• 11 Pressure Sensors
• 11.1 Concept of Pressure
• 11.2 Units of Pressure
• 11.3 Mercury Pressure Sensor
• 11.4 Bellows, Membranes, and Thin Plates
• 11.5 Piezoresistive Sensors
• 11.6 Capacitive Sensors
• 11.7 VRP Sensors
• 11.8 Optoelectronic Pressure Sensors
• 11.9 Indirect Pressure Sensor
• 11.10 Vacuum Sensors
• 11.10.1 Pirani Gauge
• 11.10.2 Ionization Gauges
• 11.10.3 Gas Drag Gauge
• References
• 12 Flow Sensors
• 12.1 Basics of Flow Dynamics
• 12.2 Pressure Gradient Technique
• 12.3 Thermal Transport Sensors
• 12.3.1 Hot-Wire Anemometers
• 12.3.2 Three-Part Thermoanemometer
• 12.3.3 Two-Part Thermoanemometer
• 12.3.4 Microflow Thermal Transport Sensors
• 12.4 Ultrasonic Sensors
• 12.5 Electromagnetic Sensors
• 12.6 Breeze Sensor
• 12.7 Coriolis Mass Flow Sensors
• 12.8 Drag Force Flowmeter
• 12.9 Cantilever MEMS Sensors
• 12.10 Dust and Smoke Detectors
• 12.10.1 Ionization Detector
• 12.10.2 Optical Detector
• References
• 13 Microphones
• 13.1 Microphone Characteristics
• 13.1.1 Output Impedance
• 13.1.2 Balanced Output
• 13.1.3 Sensitivity
• 13.1.4 Frequency Response
• 13.1.5 Intrinsic Noise
• 13.1.6 Directionality
• 13.1.7 Proximity Effect
• 13.2 Resistive Microphones
• 13.3 Condenser Microphones
• 13.4 Electret Microphones
• 13.5 Optical Microphones
• 13.6 Piezoelectric Microphones
• 13.6.1 Low-Frequency Range
• 13.6.2 Ultrasonic Range
• 13.7 Dynamic Microphones
• References
• 14 Humidity and Moisture Sensors
• 14.1 Concept of Humidity
• 14.2 Sensor Concepts
• 14.3 Capacitive Humidity Sensors
• 14.4 Resistive Humidity Sensors
• 14.5 Thermal Conductivity Sensor
• 14.6 Optical Hygrometers
• 14.6.1 Chilled Mirror
• 14.6.2 Light RH Sensors
• 14.7 Oscillating Hygrometer
• 14.8 Soil Moisture
• References
• 15 Light Detectors
• 15.1 Introduction
• 15.1.1 Principle of Quantum Detectors
• 15.2 Photodiode
• 15.3 Phototransistor
• 15.4 Photoresistor
• 15.5 Cooled Detectors
• 15.6 Imaging Sensors for Visible Range
• 15.6.1 CCD Sensor
• 15.6.2 CMOS Imaging Sensors
• 15.7 UV Detectors
• 15.7.1 Materials and Designs
• 15.7.2 Avalanche UV Detectors
• 15.8 Thermal Radiation Detectors
• 15.8.1 General Considerations
• 15.8.2 Golay Cells
• 15.8.3 Thermopiles
• 15.8.4 Pyroelectric Sensors
• 15.8.5 Microbolometers
• References
• 16 Detectors of Ionizing Radiation16 Detectors of Ionizing Radiation16 Detectors of Ionizing Radiation16 Detectors of Ionizing Radiation
• 16.1 Scintillating Detectors
• 16.2 Ionization Detectors
• 16.2.1 Ionization Chambers
• 16.2.2 Proportional Chambers
• 16.2.3 Geiger–Müller (GM) Counters
• 16.2.4 Semiconductor Detectors
• 16.3 Cloud and Bubble Chambers
• References
• 17 Temperature Sensors
• 17.1 Coupling with Object
• 17.1.1 Static Heat Exchange
• 17.1.2 Dynamic Heat Exchange
• 17.1.3 Sensor Structure
• 17.1.4 Signal Processing of Sensor Response
• 17.2 Temperature References
• 17.3 Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTD)
• 17.4 Ceramic Thermistors
• 17.4.1 Simple Model
• 17.4.2 Fraden Model
• 17.4.3 Steinhart and Hart Model
• 17.4.4 Self-Heating Effect in NTC Thermistors
• 17.4.5 Ceramic PTC Thermistors
• 17.4.6 Fabrication
• 17.5 Silicon and Germanium Thermistors
• 17.6 Semiconductor pn-Junction Sensors
• 17.7 Silicon PTC Temperature Sensors
• 17.8 Thermoelectric Sensors
• 17.8.1 Thermoelectric Laws
• 17.8.2 Thermocouple Circuits
• 17.8.3 Thermocouple Assemblies
• 17.9 Optical Temperature Sensors
• 17.9.1 Fluoroptic Sensors
• 17.9.2 Interferometric Sensors
• 17.9.3 Super-High Resolution Sensing
• 17.9.4 Thermochromic Sensors
• 17.9.5 Fiber-Optic Temperature Sensors (FBG)
• 17.10 Acoustic Temperature Sensors
• 17.11 Piezoelectric Temperature Sensors
• References
• 18 Chemical and Biological Sensors
• 18.1 Overview
• 18.1.1 Chemical Sensors
• 18.1.2 Biochemical Sensors
• 18.2 History
• 18.3 Chemical Sensor Characteristics
• 18.3.1 Selectivity
• 18.3.2 Sensitivity
• 18.4 Electrical and Electrochemical Sensors
• 18.4.1 Electrode Systems
• 18.4.2 Potentiometric Sensors
• 18.4.3 Conductometric Sensors
• 18.4.4 Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Chemical Sensors
• 18.4.5 Elastomer Chemiresistors
• 18.4.6 Chemicapacitive Sensors
• 18.4.7 ChemFET
• 18.5 Photoionization Detectors
• 18.6 Physical Transducers
• 18.6.1 Acoustic Wave Devices
• 18.6.2 Microcantilevers
• 18.7 Spectrometers
• 18.7.1 Ion Mobility Spectrometry
• 18.7.2 Quadrupole Mass Spectrometer
• 18.8 Thermal Sensors
• 18.8.1 Concept
• 18.8.2 Pellister Catalytic Sensors
• 18.9 Optical Transducers
• 18.9.1 Infrared Detection
• 18.9.2 Fiber-Optic Transducers
• 18.9.3 Ratiometric Selectivity (Pulse Oximeter)
• 18.9.4 Color Change Sensors
• 18.10 Multi-sensor Arrays
• 18.10.1 General Considerations
• 18.10.2 Electronic Noses and Tongues
• 18.11 Specific Difficulties
• References
• 19 Materials and Technologies
• 19.1 Materials
• 19.1.1 Silicon as Sensing Material
• 19.1.2 Plastics
• 19.1.3 Metals
• 19.1.4 Ceramics
• 19.1.5 Structural Glasses
• 19.1.6 Optical Glasses
• 19.2 Nano-materials
• 19.3 Surface Processing
• 19.3.1 Spin Casting
• 19.3.2 Vacuum Deposition
• 19.3.3 Sputtering
• 19.3.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
• 19.3.5 Electroplating
• 19.4 MEMS Technologies
• 19.4.1 Photolithography
• 19.4.2 Silicon Micromachining
• 19.4.3 Micromachining of Bridges and Cantilevers
• 19.4.4 Lift-Off
• 19.4.5 Wafer Bonding
• 19.4.6 LIGA
• References
• Appendix