For each measurable joint in the body, this resource provides consistent, easy-to-follow content that depict range of motion and alignment, making it easy for you to visualize the examination and technique for each joint motion and muscle length test.

Table of Contents

• Preface
• Contributing Authors
• Reviewers
• Acknowledgments
• About the Authors
• PART I INTRODUCTION TO GONIOMETRY AND MUSCLE LENGTH TESTING
• Preface
• Chapter 1 Basic Concepts - D. Joyce White, PT, DSc; Cynthia C. Norkin, PT, EdD
• Goniometry
• Kinematics
• Arthrokinematics
• Osteokinematics
• Planes and Axes
• Range of Motion
• Active Range of Motion
• Passive Range of Motion
• Hypomobility
• Hypermobility
• Factors Affecting Range of Motion
• Muscle Length Testing
• Chapter 2 Procedures - Cynthia C. Norkin, PT, EdD; D. Joyce White, PT, DSc
• Positioning
• Stabilization
• EXERCISE 1: Determining the End of the Range of Motion and End-Feel
• Measurement Instruments
• Universal Goniometer
• EXERCISE 2: The Universal Goniometer
• EXERCISE 3: Goniometer Alignment for Elbow Flexion
• Gravity-Dependent Goniometers (Inclinometers)
• EXERCISE 4: Inclinometers
• EXERCISE 5: Inclinometer Alignment for Cervical Rotation
• Electrogoniometers
• Radiography
• Photography
• Smartphones
• Visual Estimation
• Recording
• Numerical Tables
• Pictorial Charts
• Sagittal-Frontal-Transverse-Rotation (SFTR) Method of Recording
• American Medical Association Guides to Evaluation of Permanent Impairment Method
• Procedures
• Precautions to Range of Motion and Muscle Length
• Preparation for Testing
• Explanation of Procedure
• Testing Procedure
• EXERCISE 6: Explanation of Goniometric Testing Procedure
• EXERCISE 7: Testing Procedure for Goniometric Measurement of Elbow Flexion ROM
• Chapter 3 Validity and Reliability of Goniometric Measurement - David A. Scalzitti, PT, PhD; D. Joyce White, PT, DSc
• Validity
• Face Validity
• Content Validity
• Criterion-Related Validity
• Construct Validity
• Reliability
• Summary of Goniometric Reliability Studies
• Statistical Methods of Evaluating Measurement Reliability
• Exercises to Evaluate Reliability
• EXERCISE 8: Intratester Reliability
• EXERCISE 9: Intertester Reliability
• EXERCISE 10: Calculation of the Standard Error of Measurement and Minimal Detectable Change
• EXERCISE 11: Calculation of the Pearson Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient, Standard Error of Measurement, and Minimal Detectable Change
• PART II UPPER-EXTREMITY TESTING
• Preface
• Chapter 4 The Shoulder - D. Joyce White, PT, DSc
• Structure and Function
• Shoulder Complex
• Glenohumeral Joint
• Sternoclavicular Joint
• Acromioclavicular Joint
• Scapulothoracic Joint
• Range of Motion Testing Procedures
• Landmarks for Testing Procedure
• Flexion
• Extension
• Abduction
• Adduction
• Medial (Internal) Rotation
• Lateral (External) Rotation
• Research Findings
• Effects of Age, Gender, and Other Factors
• Functional Range of Motion
• Reliability and Validity
• Chapter 5 The Elbow and Forearm - D. Joyce White, PT, DSc; Cynthia C. Norkin, PT, EdD
• Structure and Function
• Humeroulnar and Humeroradial Joints
• Superior and Inferior Radioulnar Joints
• Range of Motion Testing Procedures
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures
• Elbow Flexion
• Elbow Extension
• Forearm Pronation
• Forearm Supination
• Muscle Length Testing Procedures
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures
• Elbow Flexors
• Biceps Brachii Muscle Length Test
• Elbow Extensors
• Long Head of the Triceps Brachii Muscle Length Test
• Research Findings
• Effects of Age, Gender, and Other Factors
• Functional Range of Motion
• Reliability and Validity
• Chapter 6 The Wrist - D. Joyce White, PT, DSc
• Structure and Function
• Radiocarpal and Midcarpal Joints
• Range of Motion Testing Procedures
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures
• Wrist Flexion
• Wrist Extension
• Wrist Radial Deviation
• Wrist Ulnar Deviation
• Muscle Length Testing Procedures
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures
• Wrist Flexors
• The Flexor Digitorum Profundus and Flexor Digitorum Superficialis Muscle Length Test
• Wrist Extensors
• The Extensor Digitorum, Extensor Indicis, and Extensor Digiti Minimi Muscle Length Test
• Research Findings
• Effects of Age, Gender, and Other Factors
• Functional Range of Motion
• Reliability and Validity
• Chapter 7 The Hand - D. Joyce White, PT, DSc
• Structure and Function
• Fingers: Metacarpophalangeal Joints
• Fingers: Proximal Interphalangeal and Distal Interphalangeal Joints
• Thumb: Carpometacarpal Joint
• Thumb: Metacarpophalangeal Joint
• Thumb: Interphalangeal Joint
• Range of Motion Testing Procedures: Fingers
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures
• Fingers: Metacarpophalangeal (MCP) Flexion
• Fingers: Metacarpophalangeal Extension
• Fingers: Metacarpophalangeal Abduction
• Fingers: Metacarpophalangeal Adduction
• Fingers: Proximal Interphalangeal Flexion
• Fingers: Proximal Interphalangeal Extension
• Fingers: Distal Interphalangeal Flexion
• Fingers: Distal Interphalangeal Extension
• Fingers: Composite Flexion of the MCP, PIP, and DIP Joints
• Range of Motion Testing Procedures: Thumb
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures
• Thumb: Carpometacarpal Flexion
• Thumb: Carpometacarpal Extension
• Thumb: Carpometacarpal Abduction
• Thumb: Carpometacarpal Adduction
• Thumb: Carpometacarpal Opposition
• Thumb: Metacarpophalangeal Flexion
• Thumb: Metacarpophalangeal Extension
• Thumb: Interphalangeal Flexion
• Thumb: Interphalangeal Extension
• Muscle Length Testing Procedures: Fingers
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures
• Metacarpophalangeal Flexors
• Lumbricals, Palmar Interossei, and Dorsal Interossei Muscle Length Test
• Research Findings
• Effects of Age, Gender, and Other Factors
• Functional Range of Motion
• Reliability and Validity
• PART III LOWER-EXTREMITY TESTING
• Preface
• Chapter 8 The Hip - Erin Hartigan, PT, DPT, PhD, OCS, ATC; D. Joyce White, PT, DSc
• Structure and Function
• Iliofemoral Joint
• Range of Motion Testing Procedures
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures
• Hip Flexion
• Hip Extension
• Hip Abduction
• Hip Adduction
• Hip Medial (Internal) Rotation
• Hip Lateral (External) Rotation
• Muscle Length Testing Procedures
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures
• Hip Flexors
• Thomas Test
• Hip Extensors
• Straight Leg Raising (SLR) Test
• Hip Abductors
• Ober Test
• Modified Ober Test
• Research Findings
• Effects of Age, Gender, and Other Factors
• Functional Range of Motion
• Reliability and Validity of Hip Range of Motion Measurements
• Reliability and Validity of Muscle Length Testing
• Chapter 9 The Knee - Cynthia C. Norkin, PT, EdD
• Structure and Function
• Tibiofemoral and Patellofemoral Joints
• Range of Motion Testing Procedures
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures
• Knee Flexion
• Knee Extension
• Knee Rotation
• Muscle Length Testing Procedures
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures
• Knee Extensors
• Ely Test
• Knee Flexors
• Distal Hamstring Length Test
• Research Findings
• Effects of Age, Gender, and Other Factors
• Functional Range of Motion
• Reliability and Validity of Range of Motion Measurement
• Reliability and Validity of Muscle Length Testing
• Chapter 10 The Ankle and Foot - D. Joyce White, PT, DSc
• Structure and Function
• Proximal and Distal Tibiofibular Joints
• Talocrural Joint
• Subtalar Joint
• Transverse Tarsal (Midtarsal) Joint
• Tarsometatarsal Joints
• Metatarsophalangeal Joints
• Interphalangeal Joints
• Range of Motion Testing Procedures
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures: Talocrural Joint
• Talocrural Joint: Dorsiflexion
• Talocrural Joint: Plantarflexion
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures: Tarsal Joints
• Tarsal Joints: Inversion
• Tarsal Joints: Eversion
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures: Subtalar Joint (Rearfoot)
• Subtalar Joint (Rearfoot): Inversion
• Subtalar Joint (Rearfoot): Eversion
• Transverse Tarsal (Midtarsal) Joint: Inversion
• Transverse Tarsal (Midtarsal) Joint: Eversion
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures: Metatarsophalangeal and Interphalangeal Joints
• Metatarsophalangeal Joint: Flexion
• Metatarsophalangeal Joint: Extension
• Metatarsophalangeal Joint: Abduction
• Metatarsophalangeal Joint: Adduction
• Interphalangeal Joint of the First Toe and Proximal Interphalangeal Joints of the Four Lesser Toes: Flexion
• Interphalangeal Joint of the First Toe and Proximal Interphalangeal Joints of the Four Lesser Toes: Extension
• Distal Interphalangeal Joints of the Four Lesser Toes: Flexion
• Distal Interphalangeal Joints of the Four Lesser Toes: Extension
• Muscle Length Testing Procedures
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures
• Ankle Plantarflexors
• Gastrocnemius Muscle Length Test: Supine Non-Weight-Bearing
• Gastrocnemius Muscle Length Test: Standing Weight-Bearing
• Research Findings
• Effects of Age, Gender, and Other Factors
• Functional Range of Motion
• Reliability and Validity
• PART IV TESTING OF THE SPINE AND TEMPOROMANDIBULAR JOINT
• Preface
• Chapter 11 The Cervical Spine - Cynthia C. Norkin, PT, EdD
• Structure and Function
• Atlanto-Occipital and Atlantoaxial Joints
• Intervertebral and Zygapophyseal (Facet) Joints
• Range of Motion Testing Procedures
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures
• Cervical Flexion: Universal Goniometer
• Cervical Flexion: Tape Measure
• Cervical Flexion: Double Inclinometers
• Cervical Flexion: Single Inclinometer
• Cervical Flexion: Cervical Range of Motion Device
• Cervical Extension: Universal Goniometer
• Cervical Extension: Tape Measure
• Cervical Extension: Double Inclinometers
• Cervical Extension: Single Inclinometer
• Cervical Extension: CROM Device
• Cervical Lateral Flexion: Universal Goniometer
• Cervical Lateral Flexion: Tape Measure
• Cervical Lateral Flexion: Double Inclinometers
• Cervical Lateral Flexion: Single Inclinometer
• Cervical Lateral Flexion: CROM Device
• Cervical Rotation: Universal Goniometer
• Cervical Rotation: Tape Measure
• Cervical Rotation: Single Inclinometer
• Cervical Rotation: CROM Device
• Research Findings
• Effects of Age, Gender, and Other Factors
• Functional Range of Motion
• Reliability and Validity
• Chapter 12 The Thoracic and Lumbar Spine - Cynthia C. Norkin, PT, EdD
• Structure and Function
• Thoracic Spine
• Lumbar Spine
• Range of Motion Testing Procedures
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures
• Thoracolumbar Flexion
• Thoracolumbar Flexion: Tape Measure
• Thoracolumbar Flexion: Fingertip-to-Floor
• Thoracolumbar Flexion: Double Inclinometers
• Thoracolumbar Extension
• Thoracolumbar Extension: Tape Measure
• Thoracolumbar Extension: Prone Push-Up
• Thoracolumbar Extension: Double Inclinometers
• Thoracolumbar Lateral Flexion
• Thoracolumbar Lateral Flexion: Universal Goniometer
• Thoracolumbar Lateral Flexion: Fingertip-to-Floor
• Thoracolumbar Lateral Flexion: Fingertip-to-Thigh
• Thoracolumbar Lateral Flexion: Double Inclinometers
• Thoracolumbar Rotation
• Thoracolumbar Rotation: Universal Goniometer
• Thoracolumbar Rotation: Double Inclinometers
• Lumbar Flexion
• Lumbar Flexion: Modified-Modified Schober Test (MMST) or Simplified Skin Distraction Test
• Lumbar Flexion: Double Inclinometers
• Lumbar Flexion: Single Inclinometer
• Lumbar Extension
• Lumbar Extension: Modified-Modified Schober Test or Simplified Skin Attraction Test
• Lumbar Extension: Double Inclinometers
• Lumbar Extension: Single Inclinometer
• Lumbar Lateral Flexion
• Lumbar Lateral Flexion: Double Inclinometers
• Lumbar Lateral Flexion: Single Inclinometer
• Research Findings
• Effects of Age, Gender, and Other Factors
• Functional Range of Motion
• Reliability and Validity
• Chapter 13 The Temporomandibular Joint - Cynthia C. Norkin, PT, EdD
• Structure and Function
• Temporomandibular Joint
• Range of Motion Testing Procedures
• Landmarks for Testing Procedures
• Depression of the Mandible (Mouth Opening)
• Overbite
• Protrusion of the Mandible
• Lateral Excursion of the Mandible
• Research Findings
• Effects of Age, Gender, and Other Factors
• Reliability and Validity
• APPENDIXES
• A: Normative Range of Motion Values
• B: Summary Guides for Measuring Range of Motion
• C: Joint Measurements by Body Position
• D: Numerical Recording Forms