The second edition of Handbook of Essential Oils: Science, Technology, and Applications provides a much-needed compilation of information related to the development, use, and marketing of essential oils. It focuses particularly on the chemistry, pharmacology, and biological activities of essential oils, with contributions from a worldwide group of expert authorities on their historical, biological, regulatory, and biotransformation aspects.

Table of Contents

• Preface
• Editors
• Contributors
• Chapter 1 Introduction K. Hüsnü Can Başer and Gerhard Buchbauer
• Introduction to First Edition
• Introduction to Second Edition
• Chapter 2 History and Sources of Essential Oil Research Karl-Heinz Kubeczka
• 2.1 Ancient Historical Background
• 2.2 First Systematic Investigations
• 2.3 Research during the Last Half Century
• 2.3.1 Essential Oil Preparation Techniques
• 2.3.1.1 Industrial Processes
• 2.3.1.2 Laboratory-Scale Techniques
• 2.3.1.3 Microsampling Techniques
• 2.3.2 Chromatographic Separation Techniques
• 2.3.2.1 Thin-Layer Chromatography
• 2.3.2.2 GC
• 2.3.2.3 Liquid Column Chromatography
• 2.3.2.4 Supercritical Fluid Chromatography
• 2.3.2.5 Countercurrent Chromatography
• 2.3.3 Hyphenated Techniques
• 2.3.3.1 Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry
• 2.3.3.2 High-Resolution GC-FTIR Spectroscopy
• 2.3.3.3 GC-UV Spectroscopy
• 2.3.3.4 Gas Chromatography-Atomic Emission Spectroscopy
• 2.3.3.5 Gas Chromatography-Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry
• 2.3.3.6 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Gas Chromatography
• 2.3.3.7 HPLC-MS, HPLC-NMR Spectroscopy
• 2.3.3.8 Supercritical Fluid Extraction–Gas Chromatography
• 2.3.3.9 Supercritical Fluid Chromatography-Gas Chromatography
• 2.3.3.10 Couplings of SFC-MS and SFC-FTIR Spectroscopy
• 2.3.4 Identification of Multicomponent Samples without Previous Separation
• 2.3.4.1 UV Spectroscopy
• 2.3.4.2 IR Spectroscopy
• 2.3.4.3 Mass Spectrometry
• 2.3.4.4 13C-NMR Spectroscopy
• References
• Chapter 3 Sources of Essential Oils Chlodwig Franz and Johannes Novak
• 3.1 “Essential Oil–Bearing Plants”: Attempt of a Definition
• 3.2 Phytochemical Variation
• 3.2.1 Chemotaxonomy
• 3.2.2 Inter- and Intraspecific Variation
• 3.2.2.1 Lamiaceae (Labiatae) and Verbenaceae
• 3.2.2.2 Asteraceae (Compositae)
• 3.3 Identification of Source Materials
• 3.4 Genetic and Protein Engineering
• 3.5 Resources of Essential Oils: Wild Collection or Cultivation of Plants
• 3.5.1 Wild Collection and Sustainability
• 3.5.2 Domestication and Systematic Cultivation
• 3.5.3 Factors Influencing the Production and Quality of Essential Oil-Bearing Plants
• 3.5.3.1 Genetic Variation and Plant Breeding
• 3.5.3.2 Plant Breeding and Intellectual Property Rights
• 3.5.3.3 Intraindividual Variation between Plant Parts and Depending on the Developmental Stage (Morpho- and Ontogenetic Variation)
• 3.5.3.4 Environmental Influences
• 3.5.3.5 Cultivation Measures, Contaminations, and Harvesting
• 3.6 International Standards for Wild Collection and Cultivation
• 3.6.1 GA(C)P: Guidelines for Good Agricultural (and Collection) Practice of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
• 3.6.2 ISSC-MAP: The International Standard on Sustainable Wild Collection of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
• 3.6.3 FairWild
• 3.7 Conclusion
• References
• Chapter 4 Natural Variability of Essential Oil Components Éva Németh-Zámboriné
• 4.1 Appearance of Variability
• 4.2 Variability at Different Taxonomic Levels
• 4.2.1 Species
• 4.2.2 Populations
• 4.3 Connections of Chemical Diversity with Other Plant Characteristics
• 4.3.1 Propagation and Genetics
• 4.3.2 Morphological Characteristics
• 4.4 Morphogenetic and Ontogenetic Manifestation of the Chemical Variability
• 4.5 Origin of Essential Oil Variability
• 4.6 Chemotaxonomic Considerations
• 4.7 Identification of Natural Variability
• References
• Chapter 5 Production of Essential Oils Erich Schmidt
• 5.1 Introduction
• 5.1.1 General Remarks
• 5.1.2 Definition and History
• 5.1.3 Production
• 5.1.4 Climate
• 5.1.5 Soil Quality and Soil Preparation
• 5.1.6 Water Stress and Drought
• 5.1.7 Insect Stress and Microorganisms
• 5.1.8 Location of Oil Cells
• 5.1.9 Types of Biomass Used
• 5.1.10 Timing of the Harvest
• 5.1.11 Agricultural Crop Establishment
• 5.1.12 Propagation from Seed and Clones
• 5.1.13 Commercial Essential Oil Extraction Methods
• 5.1.14 Expression
• 5.1.15 Steam Distillation
• 5.1.16 Concluding Remarks
• Acknowledgments
• References
• Chapter 6 Chemistry of Essential Oils Charles Sell
• 6.1 Introduction
• 6.2 Basic Biosynthetic Pathways
• 6.3 Polyketides and Lipids
• 6.4 Shik imic Acid Der ivatives
• 6.5 Ter penoids
• 6.5.1 Hemiterpenoids
• 6.5.2 Monoterpenoids
• 6.5.3 Sesquiterpenoids
• 6.6 Synthesis of Essential Oil Components
• References
• Chapter 7 Analysis of Essential Oils Barbara d'Acampora Zellner, Paola Dugo, Giovanni Dugo, and Luigi Mondello
• 7.1 Introduction
• 7.2 Classical Analytical Techniques
• 7.3 Modern Analytical Techniques
• 7.3.1 Use of GC and Linear Retention Indices in Essential Oil Analysis
• 7.3.2 GC–MS
• 7.3.3 Fast GC for Essential Oil Analysis
• 7.3.4 GC–Olfactometry for the Assessment of Odor-Active Components of Essential Oils
• 7.3.5 Gas Chromatographic Enantiomer Characterization of Essential Oils
• 7.3.6 LC and LC Hyphenated to MS in the Analysis of Essential Oils
• 7.3.7 Multidimensional Gas Chromatographic Techniques
• 7.3.8 Multidimensional Liquid Chromatographic Techniques
• 7.3.9 On line Couple d LC–GC
• 7.4 General Considerations on Essential Oil Analysis
• References
• Chapter 8 Safety Evaluation of Essential Oils: Constituent-Based Approach Utilized for Flavor Ingredients—An Update Sean V. Taylor
• 8.1 Introduction
• 8.2 ConstituentBased Evaluation of Essential Oils
• 8.3 Scope of Essential Oils: Used as Flavor Ingredients
• 8.3.1 Plant Sources
• 8.3.2 Processing of Essential Oils for Flavor Functions
• 8.3.3 Chemical Composition and Congeneric Groups
• 8.3.4 Chemical Assay Requirements and Chemical Description of Essential Oil
• 8.3.4.1 Intake of the Essential Oil
• 8.3.4.2 Analytical Limits on Constituent Identification
• 8.3.4.3 Intake of Congeneric Groups
• 8.4 Safety Considerations for Essential Oils, Constituents, and Congeneric Groups
• 8.4.1 Essential Oils
• 8.4.1.1 Safety of Essential Oils: Relationship to Food
• 8.4.2 Safety of Constituents and Congeneric Groups in Essential Oils
• 8.5 Guide and Example for the Safety Evaluation of Essential Oils
• 8.5.1 Introduction
• 8.5.2 Elements of the Guide for the Safety Evaluation of the Essential Oil
• 8.5.2.1 Introduction
• 8.5.2.2 Prioritization of Essential Oil According to Presence in Food
• 8.5.2.3 Organization of Chemical Data: Congeneric Groups and Classes of Toxicity
• 8.5.3 Summary
• References
• Chapter 9 Metabolism of Terpenoids in Animal Models and Humans Walter Jäger and Martina Höferl
• 9.1 Introduction
• 9.2 Metabolism of Monoterpenes
• 9.2.1 Borneol
• 9.2.2 Camphene
• 9.2.3 Camphor
• 9.2.4 3-Carene
• 9.2.5 Carvacrol
• 9.2.6 Carvone
• 9.2.7 1,4-Cineole
• 9.2.8 1,8- Cineole
• 9.2.9 Citral
• 9.2.10 Citronellal
• 9.2.11 p-Cymene
• 9.2.12 Fenchone
• 9.2.13 Geraniol
• 9.2.14 Limonene
• 9.2.15 Linalool
• 9.2.16 Linalyl Acetate
• 9.2.17 Menthofuran
• 9.2.18 Menthol
• 9.2.19 Menthone
• 9.2.20 Myrcene
• 9.2.21 α- and β-P i nene
• 9.2.22 Pulegone
• 9.2.23 α-Terpineol
• 9.2.24 Terpinen-4-ol
• 9.2.25 α- and β- Thujone
• 9.2.26 Thymol
• 9.3 Metabolism of Sesquiterpenes
• 9.3.1 Caryophyllene
• 9.3.2 Farnesol
• 9.3.3 Longifolene
• 9.3.4 Patchoulol
• References
• Chapter 10 Biological Activities of Essential Oils: An Update Gerhard Buchbauer and Ramona Bohusch
• 10.1 Introduction
• 10.2 Antibacterial Activity
• 10.3 Antiviral Activity
• 10.4 Antinociceptive Activity
• 10.5 Anti-Inflammatory Activity
• 10.6 Vasodilatory Activity
• 10.7 Cytotoxic Activity
• 10.8 Penetration-Enhancing Activity
• References
• Chapter 11 Antioxidative Properties of Essential Oils and Single Fragrance Compounds Gerhard Buchbauer and Marina Erkic
• 11.1 Introduction
• 11.2 Free Radicals
• 11.2.1 ROS
• 11.2.2 Reactive Nitrogen Species
• 11.2.3 Synthesis of ROS
• 11.2.4 Positive and Side Effects of Free Radicals
• 11.3 Oxidative Stress
• 11.4 Antioxidants
• 11.5 Antioxidant Activity
• 11.6 New Test Methods
• 11.6.1 FRAP
• 11.6.2 FRAP Assay
• 11.6.3 CUPRAC Assay
• 11.6.4 DMPD Assay
• 11.7 Antioxidant Properties of Essential Oils
• 11.8 Essential Oil Effect on Different Enzyme Functions and Free Radical Formation
• 11.9 Conclusion
• References
• Chapter 12 Effects of Essential Oils in the Central Nervous System
• 12.1 Central Nervous System Effects of Essential Oils in Humans Eva Heuberger
• 12.1.1 Introduction
• 12.1.2 Activation and Arousal: Definition and Neuroanatomical Considerations
• 12.1.3 Influence of Essential Oils and Fragrances on Brain Potentials Indicative of Arousal
• 12.1.3.1 Spontaneous Activity in the Electroencephalogram (EEG)
• 12.1.3.2 Contingent Negative Variation
• 12.1.4 Effects of Essential Oils and Fragrances on Selected Basic and Higher Cognitive Functions
• 12.1.4.1 Alertness and Attention
• 12.1.4.2 Learning and Memory
• 12.1.4.3 Other Cognitive Tasks
• 12.1.5 Conclusions
• 12.2 Psychopharmacology of Essential Oils Domingos Sávio Nunes, Viviane de Moura Linck, Adriana Lourenço da Silva, Micheli Figueiró, and Elaine Elisabetsky
• 12.2.1 Aromatic Plants Used in Traditional Medical Systems as Sedatives or Stimulants
• 12.2.2 Effects of Essential Oils in Animal Models
• 12.2.2.1 Effects of Individual Components
• 12.2.2.2 Effects of Inhaled Essential Oils
• 12.2.3 Mechanism of Action Underlying Psychopharmacological Effects of Essential Oils
• 12.2.4 Chemical Structures of Mentioned CNS Active Compounds
• References
• Chapter 13 Phytotherapeutic Uses of Essential Oils Robert Harris
• 13.1 Introduction
• 13.2 Allergic Rhinopathy
• 13.3 Antihypotensive
• 13.4 Antica rcinogenic
• 13.5 Anti-Inflammatory
• 13.6 Antimicrobial
• 13.6.1 Antibacterial
• 13.6.1.1 Acne
• 13.6.1.2 Bacterial Vaginosis
• 13.6.1.3 MRSA
• 13.6.2 Antifungal
• 13.6.3 Antiviral
• 13.6.4 Microbes of the Oral Cavity
• 13.6.4.1 Activity of Listerine® against Plaque and/or Gingivitis
• 13.6.4.2 Antiviral Listerine®
• 13.6.4.3 Activity of Essential Oils
• 13.6.5 Controlling Microflora in Atopic Dermatitis
• 13.6.6 Odor Management for Fungating Wounds
• 13.7 Anxiety
• 13.8 Cognitive Performance
• 13.9 Dissolution of Hepatic and Renal Stones
• 13.9.1 Gall and Biliary Tract Stones
• 13.9.2 Renal Stones
• 13.10 Functional Dyspepsia
• 13.11 Gastroesophageal Refux
• 13.12 Hyperlipoproteinemia
• 13.13 Insecticidal
• 13.13.1 Acaricidal Activity
• 13.13.2 Pediculicidal Activity
• 13.14 Irritable Bowel Syndrome
• 13.15 Medical Examinations
• 13.16 Mucositis
• 13.17 Nausea
• 13.18 Pain Relief
• 13.18.1 Dysmenorrhea
• 13.18.2 Headache
• 13.18.3 Infantile Colic
• 13.18.4 Joint Physiotherapy
• 13.18.5 Muscle Strain
• 13.18.6 Nipple Pain
• 13.18.7 Osteoarthritis
• 13.18.8 Postherpetic Neuralgia
• 13.19 Postoperative Pain
• 13.19.1 Breast Biopsy
• 13.19.2 Cesarean Section
• 13.19.3 Episiotomy
• 13.19.4 Gastric Banding
• 13.19.5 Prostatitis
• 13.20 Pruritus
• 13.21 Recurrent Aphthous Stomatitis
• 13.22 Respiratory Tract
• 13.22.1 Menthol
• 13.22.1.1 Antitussive
• 13.22.1.2 Nasal Decongestant
• 13.22.1.3 Inhibition of Respiratory Drive and Respiratory Comfort
• 13.22.1.4 Bronchodilation and Airway Hyperresponsiveness
• 13.22.1.5 Summary
• 13.22.2 1,8-Cineole
• 13.22.2.1 Antimicrobial
• 13.22.2.2 Antitussive
• 13.22.2.3 Bronchodilation
• 13.22.2.4 Mucolytic and Mucociliary Effects
• 13.22.2.5 Anti-Inflammatory Activity
• 13.22.2.6 Pulmonary Function
• 13.22.2.7 Summary
• 13.22.3 Treatment with Blends Containing Both Menthol and 1,8-Cineole
• 13.23 Snor ing
• 13.24 Swallowing Dysfunction
• 13.25 Conclusion
• References
• Chapter 14 In Vitro Antimicrobial Activities of Essential Oils Monographed in the European Pharmacopoeia 8th Edition Alexander Pauli and Heinz Schilcher
• 14.1 Introduction
• 14.1.1 Agar Diffusion Test
• 14.1.2 Dilution Test
• 14.1.3 Vapor Phase Test
• 14.2 Results
• 14.3 Discussion
• References
• Chapter 15 Aromatherapy with Essential Oils Maria Lis-Balchin
• 15.1 Introduction
• 15.1.1 Aromatherapy Practice in the United Kingdom and the United States
• 15.2 Definitions of Aromatherapy
• 15.3 Introduction to Aromatherapy Concepts
• 15.3.1 Aromatherapy, Aromatology, and Aromachology
• 15.3.2 Scientifically Accepted Benefts of Essential Oils versus the Lack of Evidence for Aromatherapy
• 15.4 Historical Background to Aromatherapy
• 15.4.1 Scented Plants Used as Incense in Ancient Egypt
• 15.5 Perfume and Cosmetics: Precursors of Cosmetological Aromatherapy
• 15.5.1 Three Methods of Producing Perfumed Oils by the Egyptians
• 15.6 Medicinal Uses: Precursors of Aromatology or “Clinical” Aromatherapy
• 15.6.1 Middle Ages: Use of Aromatics and Quacks
• 15.7 Modern Perfumery
• 15.8 Aromatherapy Practice
• 15.8.1 Methods of Application of Aromatherapy Treatment
• 15.9 Massage Using Essential Oils
• 15.9.1 Massage Techniques
• 15.10 Aromatherapy: Blending of Essential Oils
• 15.10.1 Fixed Oils
• 15.11 Internal Usage of Essential Oils by Aromatherapists
• 15.12 Use of Pure or Synthetic Components
• 15.13 Therapeutic Claims for the Application of Essential Oils
• 15.13.1 False Claims Challenged in Court
• 15.14 Physiological and Psychological Responses to Essential Oils and Psychophysiology
• 15.15 Placebo Effect of Aromatherapy
• 15.16 Safety Issue in Aromatherapy
• 15.17 Toxicity in Humans
• 15.17.1 Increase in Allergic Contact Dermatitis in Recent Years
• 15.17.2 Photosensitizers
• 15.17.3 Commonest Allergenic Essential Oils and Components
• 15.17.4 Toxicity in Young Children: A Special Case
• 15.17.5 Selected Toxicities of Common Essential Oils and Their Components
• 15.18 Clinical Studies of Aromatherapy
• 15.19 Recent Clinical Studies
• 15.19.1 Aromatherapy in Dementia
• 15.20 Past Clinical Studies
• 15.20.1 Critique of Selected Clinical Trials
• 15.21 Use of Essential Oils Mainly as Chemical Agents and Not for Their Odor
• 15.21.1 Single-Case Studies
• 15.22 Conclusion
• References
• Chapter 16 Essential Oils Used in Veterinary Medicine K. Hüsnü Can Başer and Chlodwig Franz
• 16.1 Introduction
• 16.2 Oils Attracting Animals
• 16.3 Oils Repelling Animals
• 16.4 Oils against Pests
• 16.4.1 Insecticidal, Pest Repellent, and Antiparasitic Oils
• 16.4.2 Fleas and Ticks
• 16.4.3 Mosquitoes
• 16.4.4 Moths
• 16.4.5 Aphids, Caterpillars, and Whitefies
• 16.4.5.1 Garlic Oil
• 16.4.6 Ear Mites
• 16.4.7 Antiparasitic
• 16.5 Essential Oils Used in Animal Feed
• 16.5.1 Ruminants
• 16.5.2 Poultry
• 16.5.2.1 Studies with CRINA® Poultry
• 16.5.2.2 Studies with Herbromix®
• 16.5.3 Pigs
• 16.6 Essential Oils Used in Treating Diseases in Animals
• References
• Chapter 17 Use of Essential Oils in Agriculture Gerhard Buchbauer and Susanne Hemetsberger
• 17.1 Introduction
• 17.2 Essential Oils as Antipests
• 17.2.1 Health and Environmental Impact of Botanical Antipests
• 17.2.2 Pesticidal and Repellent Action of Essential Oils
• 17.2.3 Development and Commercialization of Botanicals
• 17.2.4 Examples of Essential Oils Used as Antipests
• 17.2.4.1 Rosmarinus officinalis
• 17.2.4.2 Thymus sp
• 17.2.4.3 Syzygium aromaticum
• 17.2.4.4 Muña
• 17.2.4.5 Eucalyptus sp
• 17.2.4.6 Satureja sp
• 17.2.4.7 Ocimum sp
• 17.2.4.8 Origanum sp
• 17.2.4.9 Artemisia sp
• 17.2.4.10 Mentha sp
• 17.2.4.11 Cinnamomum sp
• 17.2.4.12 Acorus sp
• 17.2.4.13 Foeniculum vulgare
• 17.2.4.14 Lavandula sp
• 17.2.4.15 Carum sp
• 17.2.4.16 Chenopodium ambrosoides
• 17.3 Essential Oils as Herbicides
• 17.3.1 Phytotoxicity
• 17.3.2 Prospects of Organic Weed Control
• 17.3.3 Examples of Essential Oils in Weed Control
• 17.3.3.1 Thymus vulgaris
• 17.3.3.2 Mentha sp
• 17.3.3.3 Cymbopogon sp
• 17.3.3.4 Eucalyptus sp
• 17.3.3.5 L avandula sp
• 17.3.3.6 Origanum sp
• 17.3.3.7 Artemisia scoparia
• 17.3.3.8 Zataria multiflora
• 17.3.3.9 Tanacetum sp
• 17.4 Essential Oils as Inhibitors of Various Pests
• 17.4.1 Effect on Bacteria
• 17.4.2 Effect on Fungi
• 17.4.3 Effect on Viruses
• 17.4.4 Effect on Nematodes
• 17.5 Effect of Essential Oils on the Condition of the Soil
• 17.5.1 Effects of Essential Oils on Microorganisms and Soil
• 17.5.2 Examples of Essential Oils with an Effect on Soil Condition
• 17.5.2.1 Mentha spicata
• 17.5.2.2 Lavandula sp
• 17.5.2.3 Salvia sp
• 17.5.2.4 Myrtus communis
• 17.5.2.5 Laurus nobilis
• 17.5.2.6 Cymbopogon sp
• 17.6 Essential Oils Used in Postharvest Disease Control
• 17.6.1 Effects of Essential Oils on Stored-Product Pests
• 17.6.2 Examples of Essential Oils Used on Stored Products
• 17.6.2.1 Thymus zygis
• 17.6.2.2 Cinnamomum sp
• 17.6.2.3 Cymbopogoncitratus
• 17.6.2.4 Laurus nobilis
• 17.7 Conclusion
• References
• Chapter 18 Adulteration of Essential Oils Erich Schmidt and Jürgen Wanner
• 18.1 Introduction
• 18.1.1 General Remarks
• 18.2 Definition and History
• 18.3 Adulteration
• 18.3.1 Unintended Adulteration
• 18.3.2 Intentional Adulteration
• 18.3.3 Prices
• 18.3.4 Availability
• 18.3.5 Demand of Clients
• 18.3.6 Regulations
• 18.3.7 Aging
• 18.3.8 Cupidity
• 18.3.9 Simple Sports?
• 18.4 Possible Adulterations for Essential Oils
• 18.4.1 Water
• 18.4.2 Ethanol
• 18.4.3 Fatty Oils or Mineral Oils
• 18.4.4 High Boiling Glycols
• 18.4.5 Oils from Other Parts of the Same Species or Other Species with Sim ilar Essential Oil Composition
• 18.4.6 Related Botanical Species
• 18.4.7 Fractions of Essential Oils
• 18.4.8 Natural Isolates
• 18.4.9 Chemically Derived Synthetic Compounds, Which Are Proved to Appear in Nature
• 18.4.10 Steam Distilled Residues from Expression
• 18.4.11 Enzymatically Produced Chemicals (Natural by Law)
• 18.5 Methods to Detect Adulterations
• 18.5.1 Organoleptic Methods
• 18.5.1.1 Appearance and Color
• 18.5.1.2 Odor
• 18.5.1.3 Physical–Chemical Methods
• 18.5.1.4 Calculation of Relationship Coefficient
• 18.5.2 Analytical Methods
• 18.5.2.1 General Tests
• 18.5.2.2 Thin-Layer Chromatography
• 18.5.2.3 Gas Chromatography (GC, GLC, HRGC, GC-FID, GC-MS)
• 18.5.2.4 Chiral Analysis (Busch and Busch, 2006)
• 18.5.2.5 GC-GC and GC×GC (Two-Dimensional Gas Chromatography, 2D GC)
• 18.5.2.6 13C NMR (Nuclear Magnetic Resonance)
• 18.6 Important Essential Oils and Their Possible Adulteration
• 18.6.1 Ambrette Seed Oil
• 18.6.2 Amyris Oil
• 18.6.3 Angelica Oils
• 18.6.4 Anise Fruit Oil
• 18.6.5 Armoise Oil
• 18.6.6 Basil Oils
• 18.6.7 Bergamot Oil
• 18.6.8 Bitter Orange Oil
• 18.6.9 Bitter Orange Petitgrain Oil
• 18.6.10 Cajeput Oil
• 18.6.11 Camphor Oil
• 18.6.12 Cananga Oil
• 18.6.13 Caraway Oil
• 18.6.14 Cardamom Oil
• 18.6.15 Cassia Oil
• 18.6.16 Cedar Leaf Oil
• 18.6.17 Cedarwood Oils
• 18.6.18 Celery Seed Oil
• 18.6.19 Chamomile Oil Blue
• 18.6.20 Chamomile Oil Roman
• 18.6.21 Cinnamon Bark Oil
• 18.6.22 Cinnamon Leaf Oil
• 18.6.23 Citronella Oil
• 18.6.24 Clary Sage Oil
• 18.6.25 Clove Oils
• 18.6.26 Coriander Fruit Oil
• 18.6.27 Corymbia Citriodora Oil
• 18.6.28 Corn Mint Oil
• 18.6.29 Cumin Fruit Oil
• 18.6.30 Cypress Oil
• 18.6.31 Dill Oils
• 18.6.32 Dwarf Pine Oil
• 18.6.33 Elemi Oil
• 18.6.34 Eucalyptus Oil
• 18.6.35 Fennel Oil Sweet
• 18.6.36 Fennel Oil Bitter
• 18.6.37 Geranium Oils
• 18.6.38 Grapefruit Oil
• 18.6.39 Juniper Ber ry Oil
• 18.6.40 Lavandin Oils
• 18.6.41 Lavender Oil
• 18.6.42 Lemon Oil
• 18.6.43 Lemongrass Oil
• 18.6.44 Lime Oil Distilled
• 18.6.45 Lime Oil Expressed
• 18.6.46 Litsea cubeba Oil
• 18.6.47 Mandarin Oil
• 18.6.48 Melissa Oil (Lemon Balm)
• 18.6.49 Mentha citrata Oil
• 18.6.50 Mountain Pine Oil
• 18.6.51 Neroli Oil
• 18.6.52 Nutmeg Oil
• 18.6.53 Orange Oil Sweet
• 18.6.54 Origanum Oil
• 18.6.55 Palmarosa Oil
• 18.6.56 Parsley Oil
• 18.6.57 Pine Oil Siberian
• 18.6.58 Patchouli Oil
• 18.6.59 Pepper Oil
• 18.6.60 Peppermint Oil
• 18.6.61 Petitgrain Oil Paraguay Type
• 18.6.62 Pimento Oils
• 18.6.63 Rose Oil
• 18.6.64 Rosemary Oil
• 18.6.65 Rosewood Oil
• 18.6.66 Sage Oil (Salva of ficinalis)
• 18.6.67 Sage Oil Spanish Type
• 18.6.68 Sandalwood Oil
• 18.6.69 Spearmint Oils
• 18.6.70 Spike Lavender Oil
• 18.6.71 Star Anise Oil
• 18.6.72 Tarragon Oil
• 18.6.73 Tea Tree Oil
• 18.6.74 Thyme Oil
• 18.6.75 Turpentine Oil
• 18.6.76 Vetiver Oil
• 18.6.77 Ylang-Ylang Oils
• References
• Chapter 19 Biotransformation of Monoterpenoids by Microorganisms, Insects, and Mammals Yoshiaki Noma and Yoshinori Asakawa
• 19.1 Introduction
• 19.2 Metabolic Pathways of Acyclic Monoterpenoids
• 19.2.1 Acyclic Monoterpene Hydrocarbons
• 19.2.1.1 Myrcene
• 19.2.1.2 Citronellene
• 19.2.2 Acyclic Monoterpene Alcohols and Aldehydes
• 19.2.2.1 Geraniol, Nerol, (+)- and (-)-Citronellol, Citral, and (+)- and (-)-Citronellal
• 19.2.2.2 Linalool and Linalyl Acetate
• 19.2.2.3 Dihydromyrcenol
• 19.3 Metabolic Pathways of Cyclic Monoter penoids
• 19.3.1 Monocyclic Monoterpene Hydrocarbon
• 19.3.1.1 Limonene
• 19.3.1.2 Isolimonene
• 19.3.1.3 p-Menthane
• 19.3.1.4 1-p-Menthene
• 19.3.1.5 3-p-Menthene
• 19.3.1.6 α-Terpinene
• 19.3.1.7 γ-Ter pinene
• 19.3.1.8 Terpinolene
• 19.3.1.9 α-Phellandrene
• 19.3.1.10 p- Cymene
• 19.3.2 Monocyclic Monoterpene Aldehyde
• 19.3.2.1 Perillaldehyde
• 19.3.2.2 Phellandral and 1,2-Dihydrophellandral
• 19.3.2.3 Cuminaldehyde
• 19.3.3 Monocyclic Monoter pene Alcohol
• 19.3.3.1 Menthol
• 19.3.3.2 Neomenthol
• 19.3.3.3 (+)-Isomenthol
• 19.3.3.4 Isopulegol
• 19.3.3.5 α-Terpineol
• 19.3.3.6 (-)-Terpinen-4-ol
• 19.3.3.7 Thymol and Thymol Methyl Ether
• 19.3.3.8 Carvacrol and Carvacrol Methyl Ether
• 19.3.3.9 Carveol
• 19.3.3.10 Dihydrocarveol
• 19.3.3.11 Piperitenol
• 19.3.3.12 Isopiperitenol
• 19.3.3.13 Perillyl Alcohol
• 19.3.3.14 Carvomenthol
• 19.3.4 Monocyclic Monoterpene Ketone
• 19.3.4.1 a, β-Unsaturated Ketone
• 19.3.4.2 Saturated Ketone
• 19.3.4.3 Cyclic Monoterpene Epoxide
• 19.4 Metabolic Pathways of Bicyclic Monoterpenoids
• 19.4.1 Bicyclic Monoterpene
• 19.4.1.1 α-Pinene
• 19.4.1.2 β-Pinene
• 19.4.1.3 (±)-Camphene
• 19.4.1.4 3-Carene and Carane
• 19.4.2 Bicyclic Monoterpene Aldehyde
• 19.4.2.1 Myrtenal and Myrtanal…
• 19.4.3 Bicyclic Monoterpene Alcohol
• 19.4.3.1 Myrtenol
• 19.4.3.2 Myrtanol
• 19.4.3.3 Pinocarveol
• 19.4.3.4 Pinane-2,3-Diol
• 19.4.3.5 Isopinocampheol (3-Pinanol)
• 19.4.3.6 Borneol and Isoborneol
• 19.4.3.7 Fenchol and Fenchyl Acetate
• 19.4.3.8 Verbenol
• 19.4.3.9 Nopol and Nopol Benzyl Ether
• 19.4.4 Bicyclic Monoterpene Ketones
• 19.4.4.1 α-, β-Unsaturated Ketone
• 19.4.4.2 Saturated Ketone
• 19.5 Summary
• 19.5.1 Metabolic Pathways of Monoterpenoids by Microorganisms
• 19.5.2 Microbial Transformation of Terpenoids as Unit Reaction
• References
• Chapter 20 Biotransformation of Sesquiterpenoids, Ionones, Damascones, Adamantanes, and A romatic Compounds by Green Algae, Fungi, and Mammals Yoshinori Asakawa and Yoshiaki Noma
• 20.1 Introduction
• 20.2 Biotransformation of Sesquiterpenoids by Microorganisms
• 20.2.1 Highly Efficient Production of Nootkatone (2) from Valencene (1)
• 20.2.2 Biotransformation of Valencene (1) by Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus wentii
• 20.2.3 Biotransformation of Nootkatone (2) by Aspergillus niger
• 20.2.4 Biotransformation of Nootkatone (2) by Fusarium culmorum and Botryosphaeria dothidea
• 20.2.5 Biotransformation of (+)-1(10)-Aristolene (36) from the Crude Drug Nardostachys chinensis by Chlorella fusca, Mucor Species, and Aspergillus niger
• 20.2.6 Biotransformation of Various Sesquiterpenoids by Microorganisms
• 20.3 Biotransformation of Sesquiterpenoids by Mammals, Insects, and Cytochrome P-450
• 20.3.1 Animals (Rabbits) and Dosing
• 20.3.2 Sesquiterpenoids
• 20.4 Biotransformation of Ionones, Damascones, and Adamantanes
• 20.5 Biotransformation of Aromatic Compounds
• References
• Chapter 21 Industrial Uses of Essential Oils W. S. Brud
• 21.1 Introduction
• 21.2 History
• 21.3 Fragrances
• 21.4 Flavors
• 21.5 Production and Consumption
• 21.6 Changing Trends
• 21.7 Conclusions
• Acknowledgments
• References
• Further Readings
• Websites
• Chapter 22 Encapsulation and Other Programmed Release Techniques for Essential Oils and Volatile Terpenes Jan Karlsen
• 22.1 Introduction
• 22.2 Controlled Release of Volatiles
• 22.3 Use of Hydrophilic Polymers
• 22.4 Alginate
• 22.5 Stabilization of Essential Oil Constituents
• 22.6 Controlled Release of Volatiles from Nonvolatile Precursors
• 22.7 Cyclodextrin Complexation of Volatiles
• 22.8 Enhanced Biological Effect by Prolonged Delivery of Volatiles and Essential Oils
• 22.9 Methods for Producing Prolonged Delivery Units of Volatiles
• 22.10 Concluding Remarks
• References
• Chapter 23 Trade of Essential Oils Hugo Bovill
• Reference
• Chapter 24 Storage, Labeling, and Transport of Essential Oils Jens Jankowski, Jens-Achim Protzen, and Klaus-Dieter Protzen
• 24.1 Marketing of Essential Oils: The Fragrant Gold of Nature Postulates Passion, Experience, and Knowledge
• 24.2 Impact and Consequences on the Classification of Essential Oils as Natural but Chemical Substances in REACH
• 24.3 Dangerous Substances and Dangerous Goods
• 24.3.1 Material Safety Data Sheet
• 24.4 Packaging of Dangerous Goods
• 24.5 Labeling
• 24.6 List of Regulations for the Consideration of Doing Business in the EU
• Acronyms
• References
• Chapter 25 Aroma-Vital Cuisine: Healthy and Delightful Consumption by the Use of Essential Oils Maria M. Kettenring and Lara-M. Vucemilovic-Geeganage
• 25.1 Basic Pr inciples of the Aroma-Vital Cuisine
• 25.1.1 The Heart of Culinary Arts Is Based on Exquisite Ingredients and an Accomplished Rounding
• 25.1.2 Quality Criteria and Specifics That Have to Be Adhered to While Handling Essential Oils for Food Prepa ration
• 25.1.3 Storage
• 25.1.4 Quantity
• 25.1.5 Emulsifers and Forms of Administering
• 25.1.6 To Add Spice with Natural Aromas in a Balanced Way
• 25.1.7 Essential Oils Are Able to Lift Our Spirits As Well
• 25.2 Small Culinary Trip: Aroma-Vital Cuisine Recipes and Introduction
• 25.2.1 Menu
• 25.2.2 Aroma-Vital Cuisine Recipes
• 25.2.2.1 Basics
• 25.2.2.2 Beverages
• 25.2.2.3 Entrees
• 25.2.2.4 Appetizer and Finger Food
• 25.2.2.5 Main Course
• 25.2.2.6 Dessert, Cakes, and Baked Goods
• 25.2.2.7 Résumé
• Chapter 26 Recent EU Legislation on Flavors and Fragrances and Its Impact on Essential Oils Jan C. R. Demyttenaere
• 26.1 Introduction
• 26.2 Former Flavoring Directive and Current Flavoring Regulation: Impact on Essential Oils
• 26.2.1 Maximum Levels of “Restricted Substances”
• 26.2.1.1 (Restricted Substances under Former) Flavoring Directive 88/388/EC
• 26.2.1.2 (Restricted Substances under) New Flavoring Regulation 1334/2008/EC
• 26.2.2 Definition of “Natural”
• 26.2.2.1 (Definition of “Natural” under) Former Flavoring Directive 88/388/EC
• 26.2.2.2 (Definition of “Natural” under) New Flavoring Regulation 1334/2008/EC
• 26.3 Hazard Classification and Labeling of Flavors and Fragrances
• 26.3.1 Orange Oil
• 26.3.2 Nutmeg Oil
• 26.4 Conclusion
• 26.A Appendix
• References