This book surveys the UAS landscape from history to future applications. It discusses commercial applications, integration into the national airspace system (NAS), System function, operational procedures, safety concerns, and a host of other relevant topics.

Table of Contents

• Preface
• Acknowledgments
• Editors
• Contributors
• 1 History- Charles Jarnot, Edited by Benjamin Trapnell
• 1.1 The Beginning
• 1.2 The Need for Effective Control
• 1.3 The Radio and the Autopilot
• 1.4 The Aerial Torpedo: The First Modern Unmanned Aircraft (March 6, 1918)
• 1.5 The Target Drone
• 1.6 WWII U.S. Navy Assault Drone
• 1.7 WWII German V-1 Buzz Bomb
• 1.8 WWII German Mistletoe
• 1.9 Early Unmanned Reconnaissance Aircraft
• 1.10 Radar Decoys: 1950s-1970s.
• 1.11 Long-Range Reconnaissance Unmanned Aircraft Systems: 1960s-1970s
• 1.12 First Helicopter Unmanned Aircraft Systems: 1960s-1970s
• 1.13 The Hunt for Autonomous Operation
• 1.14 The Birth of the Twin Boom Pushers
• 1.15 Desert Storm: 1991
• 1.16 Overcoming the Manned Pilot Bias.
• 1.17 Amateur-Built Unmanned Aircraft.
• 1.18 Will Unmanned Aircraft Systems Replace Manned Aircraft?
• Discussion Questions
• 2 UAS Applications- Mark Blanks
• 2.1 Introduction
• 2.2 Basic Technology
• 2.2.1 Control Methods
• 2.2.1.1 Manual Control
• 2.2.1.2 Stabilized Control
• 2.2.1.3 Automated Control
• 2.2.2 Payloads
• 2.2.2.1 Still Imagers
• 2.2.2.2 Full Motion Video
• 2.2.2.3 Other Payloads
• 2.3 Applications
• 2.3.1 Remote Sensing
• 2.3.1.1 Photogrammetric Applications
• 2.3.1.2 Precision Agriculture
• 2.3.1.3 Natural Resource Management
• 2.3.2 Industrial Inspection
• 2.3.2.1 Civil Infrastructure
• 2.3.2.2 Electric Power Industry.
• 2.3.2.3 Wind Turbine Inspection.
• 2.3.2.4 Tower/Antenna Inspection
• 2.3.2.5 Oil and Gas Inspection
• 2.3.3 Aerial Filming and Photography
• 2.3.3.1 Filmmaking
• 2.3.3.2 Real Estate
• 2.3.3.3 Marketing
• 2.3.3.4 News Reporting.
• 2.3.4 Intelligence, Surveillance, and Reconnaissance and Emergency Response
• 2.3.4.1 Law Enforcement
• 2.3.4.2 Search and Rescue
• 2.3.4.3 Communications Relay.
• 2.3.4.4 Signals Intelligence
• 2.3.5 Atmospheric Information Collection
• 2.3.5.1 Meteorology
• 2.3.5.2 Hazardous Material Detection
• 2.3.5.3 Radioactive Material Detection
• 2.3.6 Applications Requiring Physical Interaction with Substances, Materials, or Objects
• 2.3.6.1 Aerial Chemical Application.
• 2.3.6.2 Water Sampling
• 2.3.6.3 Cargo/Package Delivery
• 2.4 Additional Considerations.
• 2.4.1 Mission Planning
• 2.4.2 Data Processing and Analysis
• 2.5 Conclusion
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 3 The “System” in UAS.- Joshua Brungardt with Richard Kurt Barnhart
• 3.1 Introduction
• 3.1.1 What Makes Up an Unmanned Aircraft System
• 3.2 UAS/RPA.
• 3.2.1 Fixed-Wing.
• 3.2.2 Vertical Takeoff and Landing
• 3.3 Command and Control Element.
• 3.3.1 Autopilot
• 3.3.2 Ground Control Station.
• 3.4 Communication Data Link.
• 3.4.1 Line-of-Sight
• 3.4.2 Beyond Line-of-Sight
• 3.5 Payload
• 3.5.1 Electro-Optical
• 3.5.2 Thermal Infrared
• 3.5.3 Spectral.
• 3.5.4 Laser
• 3.6 Launch and Recovery.
• 3.7 Human Element
• Discussion Questions
• 4 UAS Sensing: Theory and Practice- Gabriel B. Ladd
• 4.1 Introduction
• 4.1.1 In Situ Sensing.
• 4.1.2 Remote Sensing
• 4.1.3 Platform Considerations
• 4.2 Remote Sensing
• 4.2.1 Overview
• 4.2.2 Sensor Types
• 4.2.2.1 Spot Sensors
• 4.2.2.2 Imaging Sensors.
• 4.2.3 Common Sensors
• 4.2.3.1 Visible Spectrum Cameras and Near-Infrared Cameras
• 4.2.3.2 Long-Wave Infrared Cameras
• 4.2.3.3 Hyperspectral Imagers
• 4.2.3.4 LiDAR
• 4.2.3.5 Synthetic Aperture Radar
• 4.2.4 Common Applications
• 4.2.4.1 Live Video
• 4.2.4.2 Emergency Response
• 4.2.4.3 Background Imagery
• 4.2.4.4 3-D Point Cloud/Modeling
• 4.2.4.5 Vegetation Health Measurements.
• 4.3 Conclusions
• Glossary
• Remote Sensing Questions.
• Bibliography
• 5 U.S. Aviation Regulatory System- Douglas M. Marshall
• 5.1 U.S. Aviation Regulatory System
• 5.1.1 Introduction
• 5.1.2 History of U.S. Aviation Regulation
• 5.1.3 Federal Aviation Administration
• 5.1.4 Enforcement and Sanctions
• 5.2 International Aviation Regulations
• 5.3 Standards versus Regulations
• 5.4 How the Process Works
• 5.5 Current Regulation of Unmanned Aircraft
• 5.6 The FAA's Enforcement Authority over Unmanned Aircraft Systems
• 5.7 The Way Forward: The Future of Unmanned Aircraft System Regulations
• 5.8 Conclusion
• Discussion Questions
• 6 Human Factors in Unmanned Aerial Systems.- Warren Jensen
• 6.1 Introduction
• 6.2 The Enormity of the Scope
• 6.3 A Caution Regarding Hindsight Bias
• 6.4 Human Perception and RPA Operations
• 6.5 Attention
• 6.6 Selective Attention
• 6.7 Focused Attention
• 6.8 Divided Attention
• 6.9 Sustained Attention
• 6.10 Human Error.
• 6.11 Threat and Error Management.
• 6.12 Crew Resource Management.
• 6.13 Situation Awareness.
• 6.14 Vigilance
• 6.15 Diagnosis
• 6.16 Risk Analysis.
• 6.17 Action
• 6.18 Human-Machine Interfacing.
• 6.19 Compatibility.
• 6.20 Compatibility Types.
• Recommended Readings
• References
• 7 Safety Assessments- Eric J. Shappee
• 7.1 Introduction
• 7.2 Hazard Analysis.
• 7.2.1 Purpose
• 7.2.2 Preliminary Hazard List
• 7.2.3 Preliminary Hazard Analysis
• 7.2.4 Operational Hazard Review and Analysis
• 7.2.5 Change Analysis
• 7.3 Risk Assessment
• 7.3.1 Purpose
• 7.3.2 Development
• 7.3.3 Use
• 7.4 Safety Evaluation
• 7.4.1 Risk Assessment
• 7.4.2 Flight Test Cards
• 7.4.3 Airworthiness Certification
• 7.5 Accident Investigation Considerations
• 7.5.1 Software and Hardware
• 7.5.2 Human Factors.
• 7.5.3 Suggestions
• 7.6 Conclusion and Recommendations
• Discussion Question
• Appendix
• References
• 8 Export Control and ITAR- Eric McClafferty and Rose Mooney
• 8.1 Introduction
• 8.2 Glossary of Terms for Export Control Understanding
• 8.3 The Sources of Export Controls
• 8.4 What Is Export Control?
• 8.5 Where Do Export Controls Come From?
• 8.6 Export Administration Regulations
• 8.6.1 Commercial Control List
• 8.6.2 Missile Technology Control Regime Annex
• 8.7 International Traffic in Arms Regulation
• 8.8 How Do Export Control Issues Come Up in Real Life?
• 8.9 How to Protect Export-Controlled Products and Information (“Know How”)?
• 8.10 What Are Export Control Violations?
• 8.11 How Do We Perform Work Outside the United States?
• Discussion Questions
• 9 Unmanned Aircraft System Design- Brian Argrow
• 9.1 Introduction: Mission-Derived Design
• 9.2 The Design Process
• 9.3 Unmanned Aircraft Subsystems
• 9.3.1 Design Tools
• 9.3.2 Airframe
• 9.3.3 Propulsion System.
• 9.3.4 Flight Control System
• 9.3.5 Control Station
• 9.3.6 Payloads
• 9.3.7 Communications, Command, and Control (C3)
• 9.4 Standards for UAS Design, Construction, and Operations
• 9.5 UAS Design Verification and Mission Validation
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 10 UAS Airframe and Powerplant Design.- Michael T. Most
• 10.1 Introduction
• 10.2 A Few Observations Regarding UAS Design
• 10.2.1 Form Follows Function: The Best Place to Begin the Design Process
• 10.2.2 Economic Influences on the Design Process
• 10.2.3 Exogenous Factors Affecting the Design of UASs
• 10.2.4 Selected Preliminary Comments Relevant to UAS Flight Dynamics and Physics
• 10.3 Airframe Designs
• 10.3.1 Fixed-Wing Designs
• 10.3.1.1 Factors in UAS Tail Designs
• 10.3.1.2 Conventional Wing, Inverted-T-Tail Aircraft
• 10.3.1.3 Twin-Boom, Pusher-Propeller Designs
• 10.3.1.4 Flying Wings
• 10.3.1.5 Canard UASs.
• 10.3.2 Rotating-Wing or Rotary-Wing Designs
• 10.3.2.1 Helicopter UAS.
• 10.3.2.2 Multi-Rotors
• 10.3.2.3 Other Rotating-Wing UASs.
• 10.4 Powerplant Designs
• 10.4.1 Four-Cycle Engines
• 10.4.2 Two-Cycle Powerplants
• 10.4.3 Electric Motors.
• 10.4.4 Gas Turbines
• 10.4.5 Wankel or Rotary Powerplants.
• 10.4.6 Heavy Fuel Engines
• 10.4.7 Propellers on UASs
• 10.5 Launch and Recovery Systems.
• 10.6 Conclusion
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 11 UAS Subsystem Nexus: The Electrical System- Michael T. Most
• 11.1 Introduction
• 11.2 UAS Electrical Systems: General Characteristics.
• 11.3 sUAS Electrical Systems
• 11.3.1 All-Electric sUAS
• 11.3.1.1 Power Sources for All-Electric sUAS.
• 11.3.1.2 Electric sUAS Propulsors
• 11.3.2 Non-Electrically Powered sUAS
• 11.4 Electrical Systems for Large UASs.
• 11.5 Conclusion
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 12 Communication Systems - Saeed M. Khan
• 12.1 Introduction
• 12.2 Electromagnetic Wave Propagation in Free Space
• 12.3 Basic Communication System and Its Elements
• 12.3.1 Modulation
• 12.3.2 Transmitter
• 12.3.2.1 Frequency Hopping Technique for Transmission
• 12.3.3 Channel
• 12.3.3.1 Antenna Directivity
• 12.3.3.2 Antenna Gain
• 12.3.3.3 Antenna Polarization
• 12.3.4 Receiver
• 12.3.4.1 Signal-to-Noise Ratio
• 12.3.4.2 Receiver Sensitivity
• 12.3.4.3 Despreading the Signal
• 12.3.5 Demodulation
• 12.4 System Design
• 12.4.1 Establishing Bandwidth Requirements
• 12.4.2 Link Design
• 12.4.2.1 Reflection Antenna-Cable Junction
• 12.4.2.2 Losses at the Transmitting Antenna.
• 12.4.2.3 Losses due to Free Space Propagation
• 12.4.2.4 Power Received at the Receiving Antenna
• 12.4.2.5 Power in Decibel Milliwatt
• 12.4.2.6 S/N Ratio at the Receiver
• 12.4.2.7 Calculation of Signal-to-Noise Margin from Receiver Sensitivity
• 12.5 Summary of Design Principles.
• 12.6 Associated Problems from EMI Interference, Jamming, and Multipath
• 12.6.1 EMI Interference
• 12.6.2 Jamming
• 12.6.3 Multipath
• Review Questions
• Review Problems
• References
• 13 Command and Control- Nathan Maresch
• 13.1 Introduction
• 13.2 sUAS Navigation Systems.
• 13.2.1 Line of Sight Communication
• 13.2.2 sUAS Autopilot Systems
• 13.2.3 IMU/INS Stabilization Systems
• 13.3 Large UAS Navigation Systems
• 13.3.1 BLOS Communication.
• 13.3.2 Alternative Navigation
• 13.3.3 Auto-Takeoff and Auto-Landing Systems.
• 13.4 Additional C2 Topics
• 13.4.1 Open-Source Systems
• 13.4.2 The Human Element in C2
• 13.5 Conclusion
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 14 Unmanned Aircraft Subsystem Integration- William H. Semke
• 14.1 The Design Process
• 14.1.1 Concept Development and Trade Studies.
• 14.1.2 Preliminary Design Review
• 14.1.3 Critical Design Review
• 14.1.4 Fabrication
• 14.1.5 System Testing
• 14.1.6 Flight Testing.
• 14.2 Concluding Remarks
• Discussion Questions
• Chapter Questions
• References
• 15 Detect and Avoid.- Dallas Brooks and Stephen P. Cook
• 15.1 Introduction
• 15.1.1 UAS as a Transformational Technology.
• 15.1.2 Standards as a Driver for UAS Integration
• 15.2 Regulatory Basis
• 15.3 Functions of DAA System.
• 15.3.1 Self-Separation
• 15.3.2 Collision Avoidance
• 15.3.3 Detect and Avoid: Sub-Functions
• 15.4 Process and Functions of a DAA System
• 15.4.1 “Observe” Tasks
• 15.4.1.1 Detect Target
• 15.4.1.2 Track Target
• 15.4.1.3 Fuse Target Tracks.
• 15.4.2 “Orient” Tasks
• 15.4.2.1 Identify Object
• 15.4.2.2 Evaluate Threat.
• 15.4.2.3 Prioritize Threat
• 15.4.3 Decide Tasks
• 15.4.3.1 Declare/Alert.
• 15.4.3.2 Determine Maneuver
• 15.4.4 “Act” Tasks
• 15.4.4.1 Command Maneuver
• 15.4.4.2 Execute Maneuver
• 15.4.4.3 Return to Course
• 15.5 The Role of the Pilot.
• 15.5.1 Pilot in-the-Loop
• 15.5.2 Pilot on-the-Loop
• 15.5.3 Pilot-Independent
• 15.6 The Role of Air Traffic Control
• 15.7 DAA System Components
• 15.7.1 Sensors
• 15.7.2 Avoidance Algorithms
• 15.7.3 Displays
• 15.8 Defining Compliance with “Well Clear” for UAS Operations
• 15.9 Conclusion
• Acknowledgments
• Discussion Questions
• References
• 16 Policy and Public Perception- Ben Miller
• 16.1 Introduction
• 16.2 Privacy
• 16.3 Regulation
• 16.4 Public Aircraft
• 16.5 Public Perception and Education
• 16.6 Historical Applications and Case Studies (Narrative by Ben Miller)
• 16.7 Tactics and Procedures
• 16.8 Limitations of UAS in Public Safety Applications
• 16.9 Conclusion
• Discussion Questions
• 17 The Future of Unmanned Aircraft Systems- Richard Kurt Barnhart
• 17.1 Introduction
• 17.2 Anticipated Market Growth
• 17.3 The Future of UAS Market Segments
• 17.3.1 Private/Commercial UAS Market Segment
• 17.3.2 Public UAS Market Segment
• 17.3.3 Predicates to Future Market Access
• 17.3.3.1 Routine Airspace Access
• 17.3.3.2 Training and Certification
• 17.4 The Potential for Career Opportunities
• 17.5 Emerging Trends in Technology
• 17.5.1 Miniaturization
• 17.5.2 Power Solutions
• 17.5.2.1 Alternative Energy.
• 17.5.2.2 Electric Options
• 17.5.3 Materials Improvements
• 17.5.4 Revolutionary Manufacturing
• 17.5.5 Computing and Artificial Intelligence
• 17.6 Future Applications
• 17.6.1 Atmospheric Satellites.
• 17.6.2 Air Transportation.
• 17.6.3 Unmanned Combat Air Vehicle
• 17.6.4 Commonality/Scalability
• 17.6.5 Swarming UAS.
• 17.7 Five Years and Beyond
• Discussion Question
• References
• For Further Reading
• Epilogue: A Final Word