Unmatched in scholarship and scope, The International Encyclopedia of Ethics is the definitive single-source reference work on Ethics for students, scholars and professionals. Featuring coverage of the major philosophical, legal, and religious traditions, and addressing the topics, movements, key figures and arguments in Normative Ethics, Metaethics, and Practical Ethics, this reference offers an unprecedented level of authority, accuracy and balance.

Table of Contents

• A
• A Posteriori Ethical Knowledge
• A Priori Ethical Knowledge
• Abelard, Peter
• Abortion
• Action
• Addams, Jane
• Addiction
• Adoption
• Adorno, Theodor W.
• Adultery
• Advance Directives
• Adversarial System of Justice
• Advertising, Ethics of
• Aesthetics and Ethics
• Affirmative Action
• African American Religious Ethics
• African Ethics
• African Ethics
• African Political Philosophy
• Agape
• Age Discrimination
• Agent‐Centered Options
• Agent‐Centered Restrictions
• Agent‐Relative vs. Agent‐Neutral
• Agricultural Ethics
• Aid, Ethics of
• AIDS
• Al‐Farabi
• Alienation
• Allocating Scarce Medical Resources
• Altruism and Biology
• Amnesty
• Amoralist
• Analogical Arguments
• Anarchism
• Ancient Ethics
• Ancillary‐Care Obligations
• Animal Cognition
• Animal Experimentation
• Animal Rights
• Animals, Moral Status of
• Anscombe, G. E. M.
• Anthropocentrism
• Applied Ethics
• Aquinas, Saint Thomas
• Arendt, Hannah
• Aristotle
• Arrogance
• Arrow's Theorem
• Assassination
• Association, Freedom of
• Associative Duties
• Atonement
• Attention, Moral
• Attitudes, Reactive
• Augustine, Saint
• Austin, J. L.
• Austin, John
• Authenticity
• Authority
• Autonomy
• Autonomy of Ethics
• Academic Freedom
• Accounting Ethics
• Ayer, A. J.
• B
• Bad Faith and the Unconscious
• Badiou, Alain
• Balguy, John
• Barth, Karl
• Beauvoir, Simone de
• Benevolence
• Bentham, Jeremy
• Bergson, Henri
• Berlin, Isaiah
• Berlin, Isaiah
• Biocentrism
• Biocentrism
• Bioethics
• Biopiracy
• Biopolitics
• Biotechnology
• Birth Control
• Blame
• Bloch, Ernst
• Bluffing
• Body
• Bonhoeffer, Dietrich
• Boycotts
• Bradley, F. H.
• Brain Death
• Brentano, Franz
• Bribery and Extortion
• Buber, Martin
• Buck‐Passing Accounts
• Buddhist Ethics
• Bullying
• Burden of Proof
• Burke, Edmund
• Business Ethics
• Butler, Joseph
• C
• Calvin, John
• Camus, Albert
• Capabilities
• Capital Punishment
• Care Ethics
• Carritt, E. F.
• Casuistry
• Categorical Imperative
• Character
• Charity
• Chastity
• Cheating
• Child Abuse and Neglect
• Children's Rights
• Citizenship
• Civic Friendship
• Civic Virtue
• Civil Disobedience
• Civil Rights
• Civilian Immunity
• Clarke, Samuel
• Climate Change
• Cloning
• Codes of Ethics
• Coercion
• Coercive Wage Offers
• Cognitivism
• Cohen, Hermann
• Coherentism, Moral
• Collateral Damage
• Collective Responsibility
• Colonialism and Postcolonialism
• Commitment
• Commodification
• Common Good
• Communitarianism
• Companion Animals
• Companion Animals
• Companions in Guilt Strategy
• Comparable Worth
• Comparative Religious Ethics
• Compensatory Justice
• Compromise
• Compromise
• Computer Ethics
• Concepts vs. Properties, Moral
• Condorcet
• Condorcet's Jury Theorem
• Confidentiality
• Conflict of Interest
• Confucian Ethics
• Confucius
• Conscience
• Conscience and Professionals
• Conscientious Objection
• Consent
• Consequentialism
• Conservation Biology
• Constructivism, Moral
• Consumption, Ethics of
• Contextualism in Ethics
• Continental Feminist Ethics
• Contractualism
• Corporal Punishment
• Corporate Culture
• Corporate Governance
• Corporate Social Responsibility
• Corruption
• Cosmopolitanism
• Cosmopolitanism
• Cost–Benefit Analysis
• Courage
• Crimes Against Humanity
• Criminal Attempts
• Criminal Justice Ethics
• Criminal Law
• Critical Theory
• Cryoethics
• Cudworth, Ralph
• Cyrenaics
• D
• Daoist Ethics
• Death
• Declaration of Helsinki
• Deep Ecology
• Deleuze, Gilles
• Democracy
• Deontic Logic
• Deontology
• Derrida, Jacques
• Desert
• Desire
• Desire Theories of the Good
• Deterrence
• Dewey, John
• Diderot, Denis
• Difference Principle
• Dilemmas, Moral
• Dilthey, Wilhelm
• Direction of Fit
• Dirty Hands
• Dirty Hands
• Disabilities, People with
• Disagreement, Moral
• Disagreement, Moral
• Discourse Ethics
• Discrimination
• Disease Mongering
• Distance, Moral Relevance of
• Divine Command
• Doctrine of Double Effect
• Dōgen
• Doing and Allowing
• Domestic Violence
• Dual‐Use Research
• Duns Scotus
• Durkheim, Emile
• Duty and Obligation
• E
• Early Christian Ethics
• Early Modern Ethics
• Eastern Orthodox Ethics
• Ecofeminism
• Ecological Restoration
• Economic Sanctions
• Economics and Ethics
• Edwards, Jonathan
• Egalitarianism
• Egoism
• Embryo Research
• Emerson, Ralph Waldo
• Emotion
• Emotivism
• Empathy
• Employers and Employees
• Employment at Will
• Engineering Ethics
• Enhancement, Biomedical
• Environment and Ecology in Religions
• Environmental Ethics
• Environmental Virtue Ethics
• Epistemology, Moral
• Equality
• Equality
• Equality of Opportunity
• Error Theory
• Ethical Investment
• Ethical Issues in Teaching
• Ethics in the Hebrew Bible
• Ethics of Aging
• Ethics of Belief
• Ethics of Competitive Sport
• Eudaimonism
• Eugenics
• Euthanasia
• Euthyphro Dilemma
• Evaluative vs. Deontic Concepts
• Evil
• Evolution, Ethics and
• Ewing, A. C.
• Executive Compensation
• Existentialism
• Experimental Ethics
• Expert Testimony, Ethics of
• Explanations, Moral
• Exploitation
• Externalism, Motivational
• F
• Fact–Value Distinction
• Faith
• Falk, W. D.
• Family
• Fanon, Frantz
• Fatherhood
• Feinberg, Joel
• Feminist Bioethics
• Feminist Ethics
• Feminist Metaethics
• Feminist Political Theory
• Fetuses
• Fichte, Johann Gottlieb
• Fictionalism, Moral
• Filial Duties
• Firth, Roderick
• Foot, Philippa
• Forgiveness
• Foucault, Michel
• Frankena, William K.
• Free Riding
• Free Will
• Frege–Geach Objection
• Freud, Sigmund
• Friendship
• Frondizi, Risieri
• Functionalism, Moral
• G
• Gadamer, Hans‐Georg
• Game Theory and Rational Choice
• Gandhi, Mohandas K.
• Gender and Patriarchy in Religions
• Generalism vs. Particularism
• Generosity
• Genetic Testing
• Genetically Modified Organisms
• Genocide
• Geulincx, Arnold
• Glass Ceiling
• Global Business Ethics
• Global Distributive Justice
• Global Health Ethics
• Global Poverty
• Globalization
• Golden Rule
• Good and Bad Samaritanism
• Good and Better
• Good and Good for
• Goodness, Varieties of
• Gratitude
• Greatest Happiness Principle
• Green, T. H.
• Grief
• Grotius, Hugo
• Groups, Moral Status of
• Guilt
• Guise of the Good
• Gun Control
• Guo Xiang
• Guyau, Jean‐Marie
• H
• Happiness
• Hare, R. M.
• Harm
• Harm Principle
• Harrington, James
• Hart, H. L. A.
• Hartmann, Nicolai
• Hate Speech
• Health and Disease in Religions
• Health Surveillance, Ethics of
• Healthcare Resources, Distribution of
• Hedonism
• Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
• Heidegger, Martin
• Hellenistic Ethics
• Highest Good
• Hindu Ethics
• Hobbes, Thomas
• Holism
• Holocaust
• Homicide
• Homosexuality
• Honor
• Hospitality
• Human Rights and Religion
• Human Subjects, Research Use of
• Humanitarian Intervention
• Hume, David
• Humor, Ethics of
• Hunting
• Husserl, Edmund
• Hutcheson, Francis
• Hybrid Theories of Moral Statements
• I
• Ideal Observer Theories
• Idealization in Ethics
• Identity, Politics of
• Imagination In Ethics
• Immigration
• Impartiality
• Imperatives, Categorical and Hypothetical
• Imperatives, Logic of
• Imperatives, Logic of
• Imperfect Duties
• Incest
• Incommensurability (and Incomparability)
• Infanticide
• Infectious Diseases
• Informed Consent
• Inheritance
• Insanity Defense
• Instrumental Value
• Integrity
• Intellectual Property
• Intention
• Intentionality
• Intergenerational Ethics
• Intergenerational Ethics
• Internalism, Motivational
• International Bill of Rights
• International Criminal Justice
• International Relations
• International Relations
• International Research Ethics
• Internet Ethics
• Intersubjectivity
• Intimidation
• Intransitivity
• Intrinsic Value
• Intuitionism, Moral
• Intuitions, Moral
• Islamic Ethics
• Is–Ought Gap
• J
• Jain Ethics
• James, William
• James, William
• Jankélévitch, Vladimir
• Jaspers, Karl
• Jefferson, Thomas
• Journalistic Ethics
• Journalistic Ethics
• Journalistic Objectivity
• Journalistic Objectivity
• Just Cause (in War)
• Just Price
• Just War Theory, History of
• Justice
• Juvenile Justice
• K
• Kant, Immanuel
• Kantian Practical Ethics
• KELSEN, HANS
• Kierkegaard, Søren
• Kierkegaard, Søren
• KILLING
• KING JR. MARTIN, LUTHER
• L
• Laozi
• Last Person Arguments
• Late Modern British Ethics
• Late Modern Continental Ethics
• Latin American Ethics
• Leadership Ethics
• Legal Ethics
• Levinas, Emmanuel
• Liberalism
• Liberation Theology and Ethics
• Libertarianism
• Liberty
• Life, Meaning of
• Life, Value of
• Literature and Ethics
• Locke, John
• Long‐Term Care
• Love
• Loyalty
• Luther, Martin
• Lying and Deceit
• M
• Machiavelli, Niccolò
• Mackie, J. L.
• Maimonides, Moses
• Malebranche, Nicolas
• Mandeville, Bernard
• Manipulation
• Marcel, Gabriel
• Marcuse, Herbert
• Marion, Jean‐Luc
• Marriage
• Marx, Karl
• Mead, George Herbert
• Medical Tourism
• Medieval Ethics
• Mencius
• Mercenaries and Private Military Companies
• Mercy
• Metaethics
• Metaethics and Ethics
• Methodology in Metaethics
• Methodology in Metaethics
• Methods of Practical Ethics
• Military Necessity
• Military Occupation
• Mill, John Stuart
• Minimalism about Truth, Ethics and
• Modesty
• Montaigne, Michel de
• Montesquieu, Charles‐Louis de Secondat Baron de
• Moore, G. E.
• Moral Absolutes
• Moral Agency
• Moral Character
• Moral Development
• Moral Education
• Moral Equality of Combatants
• Moral Judgment
• Moral Language, Uses of
• Moral Luck
• Moral Point of View
• Moral Psychology
• Moral Reasoning
• Moral Status
• Morality, Definition of
• Morally Tragic Life
• Motherhood
• Motivation, Humean Theory of
• Motivation, Moral
• Mozi
• Multiculturalism
• Murdoch, Iris
• Mysticism and Ethics
• N
• Nanotechnology, Ethics of
• Nationalism and Patriotism
• Native American Ethics
• Natural Law
• Naturalism, Ethical
• Naturalistic Fallacy
• Nature and the Natural
• Needs
• Negligence
• Neo‐Aristotelian Ethical Naturalism
• Neuroethics
• Niebuhr, H. Richard
• Niebuhr, Reinhold
• Nietzsche, Friedrich
• Nihilism
• Non‐Cognitivism
• Nonideal Ethics
• Nonidentity Problem
• Nonnaturalism, Ethical
• Nonviolence in Religions
• Normativity
• Nuclear Weapons
• Nursing Ethics
• O
• Objective Relativism
• Offense
• Omissions
• Online Journalism
• Open Question Argument
• Oppression
• Organ Transplantation
• Organic Unities
• Ortega y Gasset, José
• Ought
• Ought Implies Can
• Overcriminalization
• Overridingness, Moral
• P
• Pacifism
• Palliative Care
• Paradox of Deontology
• Paradox of Happiness
• Paradoxes of Voting
• Parents’ Rights and Responsibilities
• Partial‐Birth and After‐Birth Abortion
• Particularism
• Patents
• Paternalism
• Paternalism
• Patience
• Pedophilia
• Perception, Moral
• Perfectionism
• Perry, Ralph Barton
• Personal Relationships
• Personhood, Criteria of
• Pharmacist Ethics
• Phenomenology, Moral
• Plato
• Plea Bargaining
• Pleasure
• Plotinus
• Police Ethics
• Political Correctness
• Political Ethics
• Political Obligation
• Polyamory
• Population
• Pornography and Obscenity
• Potential Persons
• Power
• Practical Conditionals
• Practical Reasoning
• Practical Virtue Ethics
• Pragmatic Ethics
• Pragmatic Theory of Action
• Praxis
• Precautionary Principle
• Predatory Pricing
• Preference
• Prescriptivism
• Preventive and Preemptive War
• Price, Richard
• Prichard, H. A.
• Pride
• Prima Facie and Pro Tanto Oughts
• Principlism
• Prioritarianism
• Privacy
• Privacy and the Internet
• Privacy and the Internet
• Pro‐Attitudes
• Professional Ethics
• Professional Ethics
• Profit Motive
• Projectivism
• Promises
• Propaganda
• Properties, Moral
• Proportionality (in War)
• Prostitution
• Proudhon, Pierre‐Joseph
• Prudence
• Psychiatric Ethics
• Psychopathy
• Psychopharmacology
• Psychosurgery
• Public Goods
• Public Health Ethics
• Public Reason
• Publicity
• Pufendorf, Samuel von
• Punishment
• Q
• Quasi‐Realism
• Queerness, Argument from
• Quietism
• Quotidian Ethics
• R
• Rabbinic Ethics
• Race
• Racism
• Rancière, Jacques
• Rape
• Rashdall, Hastings
• Rashdall, Hastings
• Rationalism in Ethics
• Rationality
• Rauschenbusch, Walter
• Rawls, John
• Realism, Moral
• Reason and Passion
• Reasons
• Reasons for Action, Morality and
• Reasons, Internal and External
• Reasons, Motivating and Normative
• Reasons: Holism and Atomism
• Reciprocity
• Recognition
• Reconciliation
• Reductionism in Ethics
• Reflective Equilibrium
• Refugees
• Regret
• Reid, Thomas
• Relational Ethics
• Relativism, Moral
• Religion and Global Ethics
• Religion and Politics
• Religion, Freedom of
• Religious Saints
• Reparations
• Reproductive Technology
• Repugnant Conclusion
• Research Ethics
• Respect
• Response‐Dependent Theories
• Responsibility
• Responsibility, Continental Perspectives on
• Retribution
• Ricoeur, Paul
• Rights
• Rights of Indigenous Peoples
• Ring of Gyges
• Risk
• Rorty, Richard
• Ross, W. D.
• Rousseau, Jean‐Jacques
• Rules, Standards, and Principles
• Russell, Bertrand
• S
• Same‐Sex Marriage
• Sartre, Jean‐Paul
• Satisficing
• Savior Siblings
• Scheler, Max
• Schelling, Friedrich
• Schleiermacher, Friedrich
• Schopenhauer, Arthur
• Secession
• Self‐Deception
• Self‐Defense
• Self‐Respect and Self‐Esteem
• Semantics, Moral
• Sensibility Theory
• Sentience, Moral Relevance of
• Sentimentalism
• Sentiments, Moral
• Sexual Consent
• Sexual Equality
• Sexual Harassment
• Sexual Morality
• Sexuality in Religions
• Shaftesbury, Third Earl of
• Shame and Honor
• Sidgwick, Henry
• Sin, Concepts of
• Siting
• Skepticism, Moral
• Slavery
• Slippery Slope Arguments
• Smith, Adam
• Social Contract
• Social Contract
• Socrates
• Solidarity
• Sophists
• Species, the Value of
• Speech, Freedom of
• Spencer, Herbert
• Spinoza, Baruch
• Stakeholder Theory
• Stem Cell Research
• Stevenson, C. L.
• Stewart, Dugald
• Stoicism
• Strawson, P. F.
• Strict Liability
• Suárez, Francisco
• Subjectivism, Ethical
• Suffering
• Suicide
• Supererogation
• Supervenience, Moral
• Surrogacy
• Surrogacy
• Sustainability
• Sympathy
• Synthetic Life Sciences
• T
• Terrorism
• Testimony, Moral
• Thick and Thin Concepts
• Thomasius, Christian
• Thoreau, Henry David
• Thought Experiments in Ethics
• Toleration
• Torts
• Torture
• Trade Secrets
• Tragedy of the Commons
• TRIPS
• Troeltsch, Ernst
• Trolley Problem
• Trolley Problem
• Trust
• Truth Commissions
• Truth in Ethics
• Twentieth‐Century Continental Ethics
• Twin Earth, Moral
• U
• Universalizability
• Usury
• Utilitarianism
• V
• Vaccination Policies
• Value Pluralism
• Value Realism
• Value, Fitting‐Attitude Account of
• Vegetarianism and Veganism
• Veterinary Ethics
• Victimless Crimes
• Violence
• Virtue
• Virtue Ethics
• Von Wright, G. H.
• W
• Wang Yangming
• Wang Yangming
• War
• War and Religion
• War Crimes
• Weakness of Will
• Weapons Research and Development
• Weber, Max
• Weil, Simone
• Well‐Being
• Whewell, William
• Whistleblowing
• White‐Collar Crime
• Why Be Moral
• Wilderness, Value of
• William of Ockham
• Williams, Bernard
• Wisdom
• Wittgenstein, Ludwig
• Wolff, Christian
• Wollaston, William
• Wollaston, William
• Wollstonecraft, Mary
• Work, Nature and Value of
• World Hunger
• World Trade Organization
• Worth/Dignity
• Wrong Kind of Reasons Problem
• Wrongful Life
• X
• Xunzi
• Z
• Zhu Xi
• Zhuangzi