The Dictionary of New Testament Background takes full advantage of the flourishing study of the Dead Sea Scrolls and offers individual articles focused on the most important scrolls. In addition, the Dictionary encompasses the fullness of second-temple Jewish writings, whether pseudepigraphic, rabbinic, parables, proverbs, histories or inscriptions.

Table of Contents

• Preface
• How to Use This Dictionary
• Abbreviations
• Transliterations
• List of Contributors
• A
• ABBA ḤILQIAH
• ABRAHAM
• ADAM AND EVE, LITERATURE CONCERNING
• ADMINISTRATION, ROMAN
• ADULTERY, DIVORCE
• AFFLICTION LISTS
• AFTERLIFE
• AHIQAR
• ALCHEMY
• ALEXANDER THE GREAT
• ALEXANDRIA
• ALEXANDRIAN LIBRARY
• ALEXANDRIAN SCHOLARSHIP
• AMRAM, VISIONS OF
• AMULETS
• ANCESTORS
• ANGELIC LITURGY
• ANGELS OF THE NATIONS
• ANTIOCH (PISIDIA)
• ANTIOCH (SYRIA)
• ANTIOCHIDS
• ANTIPAS
• APOCALYPSE OF ABRAHAM
• APOCALYPSE OF ZEPHANIAH
• APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE
• APOCALYPTICISM
• APOCRYPHA AND PSEUDEPIGRAPHA
• APOCRYPHA OF MOSES (1Q29, 4Q374-377, 4Q408)
• APOCRYPHAL ACTS AND EPISTLES
• APOCRYPHAL AND PSEUDEPIGRAPHICAL SOURCES IN THE NEW TESTAMENT
• APOCRYPHAL GOSPELS
• APOCRYPHON OF JEREMIAH
• APOCRYPHON OF JOSEPH (4Q371-372, 539)
• APOCRYPHON OF JOSHUA (4Q378-379)
• APOLLONIUS OF TYANA
• APOSTOLIC FATHERS
• APOTHEOSIS
• AQUILA
• ARAMAIC LANGUAGE
• ARAMAIC TARGUMIM: QUMRAN
• ARCHAEOLOGY AND THE NEW TESTAMENT
• ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE LAND OF ISRAEL
• ARCHELAUS
• ARENAS
• ARISTEAS, EPISTLE OF
• ARISTOBULUS
• ARISTOTLE, ARISTOTELIANISM
• ARMY, ROMAN
• ART AND ARCHITECTURE: GRECO-ROMAN
• ART AND ARCHITECTURE: JEWISH
• ARTAPANUS
• ASCENSION OF ISAIAH
• ASIA MINOR
• ASSOCIATIONS
• ASSUMPTION OF MOSES
• ASTROLOGY
• ASTROLOGY, JEWISH
• ATHENS
• ATHLETICS
• AUXILIARIES
• B
• BABATHA ARCHIVE
• BAGASRAW, TALE OF
• BANQUETS
• BAR KOKHBA LETTERS
• BARKI NAFSHI (4Q434, 436, 437-439)
• BARUCH, BOOKS OF
• BEATITUDES TEXT (4Q525)
• BELIAL, BELIAR, DEVIL, SATAN
• BENEFACTOR
• BETROTHAL
• BIBLICAL INTERPRETATION, JEWISH
• BIBLIOMANCY
• BIOGRAPHY, ANCIENT
• BIRTH OF THE CHOSEN ONE (4Q534)
• BOETHUSIANS
• BOOK CULTURE
• BOOK OF BLESSINGS (1QSb)
• BOOK OF MYSTERIES (4Q299-301 & 1Q27)
• BRONTOLOGION
• BURIAL PRACTICES, JEWISH
• C
• CAESAREA MARITIMA
• CAESAREA PHILIPPI
• CAESAR'S HOUSEHOLD
• CAIAPHAS OSSUARY
• CALENDARS, JEWISH
• CALENDARS, ROMAN
• CANONICAL FORMATION OF THE NEW TESTAMENT
• CATENA (4Q177)
• CAVE 7 FRAGMENTS (QUMRAN)
• CELIBACY
• CENSUS
• CENTURION
• CHILDBEARING
• CHILDREN IN LATE ANTIQUITY
• CHRONOLOGY, NEW TESTAMENT
• CICERO
• CIRCUSES AND GAMES
• CITIES, GRECO-ROMAN
• CITIZENSHIP, ROMAN
• CIVIC CULTS
• CLEODEMUS-MALCHUS
• COINAGE: GRECO-ROMAN
• COINAGE: JEWISH
• COLOSSAE
• COMMERCE
• CONCUBINAGE
• CONSOLATIONS/TANḤUMIN (4Q176)
• COPPER SCROLL (3Q15)
• COPTIC NEW TESTAMENT
• CORINTH
• CREEDS AND HYMNS
• CUMAEAN SIBYL
• CUMANUS, VENTIDIUS
• CYNIC EPISTLES
• CYNICISM AND SKEPTICISM
• D
• DAILY PRAYERS (4Q503)
• DAMASCUS DOCUMENT (CD AND QD)
• DANIEL, ESTHER AND JEREMIAH, ADDITIONS TO
• DEAD SEA SCROLLS: GENERAL INTRODUCTION
• DECAPOLIS
• DECURIONS
• DELPHIC ORACLE
• DEMETRIUS
• DEMONOLOGY
• DESTRUCTION OF JERUSALEM
• DEVIL
• DIADOCHI
• DIASPORA JUDAISM
• DIATESSARON
• DIATRIBE
• DIETARY LAWS, JEWISH
• DIONYSIUS OF HALICARNASSUS
• DIVINATION
• DIVORCE
• DOMESTIC RELIGION AND PRACTICES
• DOSITHEANS
• DOWRY
• DREAMS AND DIVINATION
• DUALISM
• E
• ECCLESIASTICUS
• ECONOMICS OF PALESTINE
• EDICT OF CLAUDIUS
• EDUCATION: JEWISH AND GRECOROMAN
• EGYPTIAN, THE
• ELEAZAR THE EXORCIST
• ELECT OF GOD (4Q534)
• EMPERORS
• ENOCH, BOOKS OF
• ENOSH
• EPHESUS
• EPICTETUS
• EPICUREANISM
• EPIGRAPHY
• EPISTOLARY THEORY
• EQUESTRIAN ORDER
• ESCHATOLOGIES OF LATE ANTIQUITY
• ESDRAS, BOOKS OF
• 1 ESDRAS
• ESSENES
• ESTHER, ADDITIONS TO
• ETHNOGRAPHY, ANCIENT
• EUPOLEMUS
• EXILE
• EXORCISM
• EXPOSURE OF INFANTS
• EXTRAMARITAL SEXUAL INTERCOURSE
• EZEKIEL THE TRAGEDIAN
• F
• FALSE PROPHECY
• FAMILY AND HOUSEHOLD
• FATE
• FELIX
• FESTIVALS AND HOLY DAYS: GRECO-ROMAN
• FESTIVALS AND HOLY DAYS: JEWISH
• FLORILEGIUM (4Q174)
• FOURTH PHILOSOPHY
• FREEDMEN
• FRIENDSHIP
• G
• GALATIA, GALATIANS
• GALILEE
• GALLIO INSCRIPTION
• GAMES
• GENDER ROLES
• GENESIS APOCRYPHON (1QapGen)
• GENRES OF THE NEW TESTAMENT
• GEOGRAPHICAL PERSPECTIVES IN LATE ANTIQUITY
• GNOSTICISM
• GODFEARERS
• GODS
• GOVERNORS
• GRAMMARIANS, HELLENISTIC GREEK
• GREECE AND MACEDON
• GREEK OF THE NEW TESTAMENT
• GREEK OLD TESTAMENT
• GREEK PAPYRI, PALESTINIAN
• GYMNASIA AND BATHS
• H
• HABAKKUK COMMENTARY (1QpHab)
• HALAKHA A (4Q251)
• ḤANINA BEN DOSA
• HARVESTING/LEQET TEXT (4Q284a)
• HASMONEANS
• HEAD COVERINGS
• HEALING AND HEALING MIRACLES
• HEAVENLY ASCENT IN JEWISH AND PAGAN TRADITIONS
• HEBRAISMS
• HEBREW BIBLE
• HEBREW LANGUAGE
• HEBREW MATTHEW
• HEKHALOT LITERATURE
• HELLENISM
• HELLENISTIC EGYPT
• HELLENISTIC JUDAISM
• HERMETICISM
• HEROD THE GREAT
• HERODIAN DYNASTY
• HERODIANS
• HERODOTUS OF HALICARNASSUS
• HEROES
• HILLEL, HOUSE OF
• HIPPOCRATIC LETTERS
• HISTORIANS, GRECO-ROMAN
• HISTORIANS, JEWISH
• HISTORIOGRAPHY, ANCIENT
• HISTORY, JEWISH
• HOLY DAYS
• HOLY LAND
• HOLY MEN, JEWISH
• HOLY SPIRIT
• HOMILY, ANCIENT
• HOMOEROTICISM
• HOMOSEXUAL INTERCOURSE
• ḤONI THE CIRCLE DRAWER
• HONOR AND SHAME
• HOROGRAPHY, ANCIENT
• HOROSCOPE TEXT (4Q186)
• HOSPITALITY
• HOUSEHOLD
• HOUSEHOLD CODES
• HOUSEHOLD CULT
• HUSBANDS
• HYMNS.
• I
• IDOLATRY, JEWISH CONCEPTION OF
• INCEST
• INFANTICIDE
• INSCRIPTIONS AND PAPYRI: GRECO-ROMAN
• INSCRIPTIONS AND PAPYRI: JEWISH
• INSTRUCTION AND DISCIPLINE
• INTERTEXTUALITY, BIBLICAL
• ISAIAH SCROLLS (1QISAIAHa, b)
• ISRAEL, LAND OF
• J
• JEREMIAH, ADDITIONS TO
• JERUSALEM
• JESUS BEN ANANIAS
• JEWISH COMMUNITIES IN ASIA MINOR
• JEWISH HISTORY: GREEK PERIOD
• JEWISH HISTORY: PERSIAN PERIOD
• JEWISH HISTORY: ROMAN PERIOD
• JEWISH HOLY MEN
• JEWISH LITERATURE: HISTORIANS AND POETS
• JEWISH WARS WITH ROME
• JOB
• JONATHAN THE REFUGEE
• JOSEPH AND ASENETH
• JOSEPHUS: INTERPRETIVE METHODS AND TENDENCIES
• JOSEPHUS: VALUE FOR NEW TESTAMENT STUDY
• JUBILEES
• JUDAISM AND THE NEW TESTAMENT
• JUDAS THE GALILEAN
• JUDEA
• JUDITH
• K
• KINGDOM OF GOD
• KINSHIP
• KISSING
• L
• LAND OF ISRAEL
• LANGUAGES
• LATIN LANGUAGE
• LATIN NEW TESTAMENT
• LAW/NOMOS IN GRECO-ROMAN WORLD
• LEGAL TEXTS AT QUMRAN
• LEGION
• LEGIONARY
• LEQET/HARVESTING TEXT (4Q284a)
• LETTERS, GRECO-ROMAN
• LITERACY AND BOOK CULTURE
• LITERATURE
• LITURGY: QUMRAN
• LITURGY: RABBINIC
• LIVES OF THE PROPHETS
• LUCIAN OF SAMOSATA
• M
• 1 AND 2 MACCABEES
• 3 AND 4 MACCABEES
• MACEDON
• MAGICAL PAPYRI
• MANASSEH.
• MANUAL OF DISCIPLINE.
• MANUMISSION.
• MANUSCRIPTS, GREEK NEW TESTAMENT
• MANUSCRIPTS, GREEK OLD TESTAMENT
• MARIA THE JEWISH ALCHEMIST
• MARRIAGE
• MARTYRDOM TRADITION, JEWISH.
• MASADA.
• MASADA TEXTS.
• MASORETIC TEXT.
• MATTHEW'S GOSPEL IN HEBREW.
• MELCHIZEDEK, TRADITIONS OF
• MESSIANIC APOCALYPSE (4Q521)
• MESSIANIC RULE.
• MESSIANISM
• MIDRASHIM.
• MILITARY, ROMAN.
• MILK
• MIQṢAT MA ˓AŚEY HA-TORAH (4QMMT)
• MIRACLES AND HEALING.
• MISHNAH AND TOSEFTA.
• MMT.
• MONOGAMY.
• MOSES.
• MUSIC
• MUSONIUS RUFUS
• MYSTERIES
• MYSTICISM
• N
• NABONIDUS.
• NARRATIVE A (4Q458)
• NARRATIVE AND PSALMIC WORK (4Q371-372, 539).
• NAVY, ROMAN.
• NAHAL HEVER TEXTS.
• NEO-PYTHAGOREANISM
• NEW JERUSALEM TEXTS
• NEW TESTAMENT VERSIONS, ANCIENT
• NOMOS.
• NOVELS.
• NURSES, WET.
• O
• ODES OF SOLOMON
• OLD TESTAMENT VERSIONS, ANCIENT
• ORACLES.
• ORDINANCES (4Q159, 4Q513, 4Q514).
• OSSUARIES.
• P
• PAGAN SOURCES IN THE NEW TESTAMENT
• PANTHEON, GREEK AND ROMAN.
• PAPYRI, PALESTINIAN
• PAPYRI.
• PARABLES.
• PARENTS.
• PATERFAMILIAS.
• PATRONAGE
• PAX ROMANA
• PEREGRINI.
• PERSECUTION
• PESHARIM
• PESHER HABAKKUK.
• PESHITTA.
• PHARISEES
• PHILIP THE TETRARCH.
• PHILIPPI
• PHILO
• PHILOSOPHY
• PHYLACTERIES/TEPILLIN, QUMRAN.
• PIETY, JEWISH
• PILATE INSCRIPTION
• PISIDIAN ANTIOCH.
• PLATO, PLATONISM
• PLATONISM.
• PLEBS.
• PLINY THE ELDER
• PLINY THE YOUNGER
• PLUTARCH
• POETRY, HELLENISTIC
• POETS, JEWISH.
• POLITICAL SYSTEM, ROMAN.
• POLYTHEISM, GRECO-ROMAN
• POMPEY
• PONTIUS PILATE.
• PORCIUS FESTUS.
• PRAETORIAN GUARD.
• PRAYER OF ENOSH (4Q369 + 4Q458)
• PRAYER OF MANASSEH
• PRAYER OF NABONIDUS (4Q242) AND PSEUDO-DANIEL (4Q243-245)
• PREFECT.
• PREMARITAL SEXUAL INTERCOURSE.
• PRIENE INSCRIPTION.
• PRIESTS AND PRIESTHOOD, JEWISH
• PRISON, PRISONER
• PROCONSUL.
• PROCURATOR.
• PROMISED LAND.
• PROPHETS AND PROPHECY
• PROSELYTISM AND GODFEARERS
• PROSTITUTION.
• PROVERBS.
• PSALMS AND HYMNS OF QUMRAN
• PSALMS OF SOLOMON
• PSEUDO-DANIEL (4Q243-245).
• PSEUDO-EUPOLEMUS.
• PSEUDO-EZEKIEL.
• PSEUDONYMITY AND PSEUDEPIGRAPHY
• pseudo-orpheus.
• PSEUDO-PHILO
• PSEUDO-PHOCYLIDES
• PSEUDO-PROPHETS (4Q385-388, 390-391)
• PTOLEMIES
• PUBLICANI.
• PURIFICATION LITURGY (4Q284).
• PURIFICATION TEXTS (4Q274-279, 281-284, 512-514)
• PURITY
• PYTHAGOREANISM.
• PYTHIAN ORACLES.
• Q
• QAHAT.
• QUMRAN CAVE 7.
• QUMRAN: PLACE AND HISTORY
• R
• RABBINIC LITERATURE: MIDRASHIM
• RABBINIC LITERATURE: MISHNAH AND TOSEFTA
• RABBINIC LITERATURE: TALMUD
• RABBINIC LITERATURE: TARGUMIM
• RABBINIC PARABLES
• RABBINIC PROVERBS
• RABBIS
• READING.
• REBUKES BY THE OVERSEER (4Q477).
• RELIGION, GRECO-ROMAN
• RELIGION, PERSONAL
• RESTORATION OF ISRAEL.
• RESURRECTION
• REVOLUTIONARY MOVEMENTS, JEWISH
• REVOLUTIONARY PROPHETS.
• REWORKED PENTATEUCH (4Q158, 4Q364-367).
• REWRITTEN BIBLE IN PSEUDEPIGRAPHA AND QUMRAN
• RHETORIC
• RITUAL OF MARRIAGE (4Q502).
• RITUAL PURITY A & B (4Q414, 512).
• ROMAN ADMINISTRATION
• ROMAN EAST
• ROMAN EMPERORS
• ROMAN EMPIRE
• ROMAN GOVERNORS OF PALESTINE
• ROMAN LAW AND LEGAL SYSTEM
• ROMAN MILITARY
• ROMAN POLITICAL SYSTEM
• ROMAN SOCIAL CLASSES
• ROMAN TRIUMPH
• ROMANCES/NOVELS, ANCIENT
• ROME: OVERVIEW
• ROSETTA STONE.
• RULE OF THE COMMUNITY/MANUAL OF DISCIPLINE (1QS)
• RULE OF THE CONGREGATION/ MESSIANIC RULE (1QSA)
• RULER CULT
• S
• SABBATH
• SABBATH SACRIFICE, SONGS OF THE
• SACRED SPACE.
• SACRIFICE AND TEMPLE SERVICE
• SACRIFICES, PAGAN.
• SADDUCEES
• SAMARITAN LITERATURE
• SAMARITAN, THE.
• SAMARITANS
• SANHEDRIN
• SAPIENTIAL WORK A.
• SATAN.
• SCHOLARSHIP, GREEK AND ROMAN
• SCHOOLS.
• SCRIBES
• SECRET OF EXISTENCE (4Q412-413, 415-421)
• SECTS, JEWISH.
• SELEUCIDS AND ANTIOCHIDS
• SEMITIC INFLUENCE ON THE NEW TESTAMENT
• SENATORIAL ORDER.
• SENECA
• SEPPHORIS.
• SEPTUAGINT/GREEK OLD TESTAMENT
• SHAME.
• SHAMMAI, HOUSE OF
• SHEM, TREATISE OF.
• SHIPS.
• SIBYLLINE ORACLES
• SIBYLLINE PROPHECY.
• SICARII.
• SIGN PROPHETS.
• SIMON BAR GIORA.
• SIMON BEN KOSIBA
• SIRACH
• SLAVERY
• SOCIAL BANDITS.
• SOCIAL CLASSES, ROMAN.
• SOCIAL MOBILITY.
• SOCIAL VALUES AND STRUCTURES
• SOLOMON.
• SON OF GOD TEXT (4Q246)
• SONGS OF THE SABBATH SACRIFICE (4Q400-407, 11Q17, MASIK)
• SONGS OF THE SAGE (4Q510-511).
• SPORTS.
• STOICISM
• SUETONIUS
• SUPERSTITION.
• SYMMACHUS.
• SYNAGOGUES
• SYNCRETISM.
• SYRIAC BIBLE
• SYRIAC NEW TESTAMENT.
• T
• TACITUS
• TALE OF BAGASRAW (PSEUDO-ESTHER) (4Q550a-f)
• TALMUD.
• TANAK.
• TANHUMIM.
• TARGUM OF JOB (QUMRAN).
• TARGUMIM.
• TAX COLLECTORS.
• TAXATION, GRECO-ROMAN
• TAXATION, JEWISH
• TEACHER OF RIGHTEOUSNESS.
• TEMPLE, JEWISH
• TEMPLE INSCRIPTION.
• TEMPLE SCROLL (11QTEMPLE)
• TEMPLE SERVICE.
• TEMPLES, GRECO-ROMAN
• TESTAMENT OF ABRAHAM
• TESTAMENT OF JOB
• TESTAMENT OF MOSES
• TESTAMENT OF QAHAT (4Q542)
• TESTAMENTS OF THE TWELVE PATRIARCHS
• TESTIMONIA (4Q175)
• TESTING AND TRIAL IN SECULAR GREEK THOUGHT
• TEXTUAL CRITICISM
• THANKSGIVING HYMNS (1QH)
• THEATERS
• THEODOTION.
• THEODOTUS.
• THEODOTUS INSCRIPTION.
• THEOLOGIES AND SECTS, JEWISH
• THERAPEUTAE
• THESSALONICA
• THEUDAS.
• THREE TONGUES OF FIRE.
• THUNDER TEXT (4Q318)
• TIBERIAS
• TOBIT
• TOHOROT (4Q274, 276-277).
• TORAH
• TOSEFTA.
• TOUBIAS THE AMMONITE.
• TRADE.
• TRAVEL AND TRADE
• TRAVELOGUES.
• TREATISE OF SHEM
• TWELVE PATRIARCHS.
• U, V
• UNCLEAN.
• URBAN CENTERS.
• VICE AND VIRTUE LISTS
• VINEYARD TEXT (4Q500)
• VIRTUES.
• VISIONS OF AMRAM (4Q543-548)
• W
• WAR SCROLL (1QM) AND RELATED TEXTS
• WEDDING.
• WISDOM LITERATURE AT QUMRAN
• WISDOM OF BEN SIRA.
• WISDOM OF SOLOMON
• WISDOM PERSONIFIED.
• WIVES.
• WOMEN IN GRECO-ROMAN WORLD AND JUDAISM
• WORDS OF MOSES (1Q22)
• WORDS OF THE LUMINARIES (4Q504-506).
• WORKS OF THE MESSIAH.
• WORSHIP, JEWISH.
• WRITING AND LITERATURE: GRECO-ROMAN
• WRITING AND LITERATURE: JEWISH
• X, Y, Z
• XENOPHON.
• YEARS.
• YOUTH.
• ZEALOT MOVEMENT.
• ZENON PAPYRI
• ZODIAC.