This new edition of the award-winning Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences is fully revised and updated to reflect major advances during the last decade.

Table of Contents

• Preface to the First Edition
• Preface to the Second Edition
• Editor Biographies
• Guide to Using the Encyclopedia
• Permission Acknowledgments
• AEROSOLS
• Aerosol–Cloud Interactions and Their Radiative Forcing
• Aerosol Physics and Chemistry
• Climatology of Stratospheric Aerosols
• Climatology of Tropospheric Aerosols
• Dust
• Observations and Measurements
• Role in Radiative Transfer
• Role in Climate Change
• Soot
• Agricultural Meteorology and Climatology
• ARCTIC AND ANTARCTIC
• Antarctic Climate
• Arctic Climate
• Arctic Haze
• AIR SEA INTERACTIONS
• Freshwater Flux
• Momentum, Heat, and Vapor Fluxes
• Sea Surface Temperature
• Surface Waves
• AVIATION METEOROLOGY
• Aircraft Emissions
• Aircraft Icing
• Aviation Weather Hazards
• Clear Air Turbulence
• BASIC ATMOSPHERIC STRUCTURE AND CONCEPTS
• Beaufort Wind Scale
• Wind Chill
• Standard Atmosphere
• BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLES
• Sulfur Cycle
• Bromine
• Heavy Metals
• Iodine
• BOUNDARY LAYER (ATMOSPHERIC) AND AIR POLLUTION
• Overview
• Air Pollution Meteorology
• Coherent Structures
• Complex Terrain
• Convective Boundary Layer
• Microclimate
• Modeling and Parameterization
• Observational Techniques In Situ
• Observational Techniques: Remote
• Ocean Mixed Layer
• Stably Stratified Boundary Layer
• Surface Layer
• Urban Heat Islands
• Diurnal Cycle
• CHEMISTRY OF THE ATMOSPHERE
• Chemical Kinetics
• Ion Chemistry
• Isotopes, Stable
• Laboratory Kinetics
• Methane
• Observations for Chemistry (In Situ): Ozone Sondes
• Observations for Chemistry (In Situ): Particles
• Observations for Chemistry (In Situ): Water Vapor Sondes
• Observations for Chemistry (Remote Sensing): IR/FIR (Satellite, Balloon and Ground)
• Observations for Chemistry (Remote Sensing): Lidar
• Observations for Chemistry (Remote Sensing): Microwave
• Principles of Chemical Change
• Radioactivity: Cosmogenic Radionuclides
• Volcanoes: Composition of Emissions
• Tracers
• CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE
• Overview
• Carbon Dioxide
• Climate Feedbacks
• Climate Prediction: Empirical and Numerical
• Climate Variability: Decadal to Centennial Variability
• Climate Variability: Nonlinear and Random Effects
• Climate Variability: North Atlantic and Arctic Oscillation
• Climate Variability: Seasonal and Interannual Variability
• Energy Balance Climate Models
• Global Impacts of the Madden–Julian Oscillation
• Greenhouse Effect
• History of Scientific Work on Climate Change
• Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
• Nuclear Winter
• Radiative–Convective Equilibrium Climate Models
• Volcanoes: Role in Climate
• CLOUDS AND FOG
• Cloud Modeling
• Contrails
• Cloud Microphysics
• Classification of Clouds
• Climatology
• Measurement Techniques In Situ
• Fog
• Noctilucent Clouds
• Stratus and Stratocumulus
• CRYOSPHERE
• Glaciers, Topography, and Climate
• Permafrost
• Sea Ice
• Snow (Surface)
• DATA ASSIMILATION AND PREDICTABILITY
• Data Assimilation
• Ensemble-Based Data Assimilation
• Ensemble Prediction
• Predictability and Chaos
• DYNAMICAL METEOROLOGY
• Overview
• Acoustic Waves
• Atmospheric Tides
• Balanced Flow
• Baroclinic Instability
• Coriolis Force
• Critical Layers
• Hamiltonian Dynamics
• Hydraulic Flow
• Inertial Instability
• Kelvin–Helmholtz Instability
• Kelvin Waves
• Kinematics
• Laboratory Geophysical Fluid Dynamics
• Lagrangian Dynamics
• Potential Vorticity
• Primitive Equations
• Quasigeostrophic Theory
• Rossby Waves
• Solitary Waves
• Static Stability
• Stationary Waves (Orographic and Thermally Forced)
• Symmetric Stability
• Vorticity
• Wave-CISK
• Wave Mean-Flow Interaction
• Waves
• ELECTRICITY IN THE ATMOSPHERE
• Global Electrical Circuit
• Ions in the Atmosphere
• Lightning
• Sprites
• Forensic Meteorology
• GENERAL CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
• Overview
• Angular Momentum of the Atmosphere
• Energy Cycle
• Weather Regimes and Multiple Equilibria
• Mean Characteristics
• Teleconnections
• GLOBAL CHANGE
• Climate Record: Surface Temperature Trends
• Sea Level Change
• Upper Atmospheric Change
• Biospheric Impacts and Feedbacks
• GRAVITY WAVES
• Overview
• Buoyancy and Buoyancy Waves: Optical Observations
• Buoyancy and Buoyancy Waves: Theory
• Gravity Waves Excited by Jets and Fronts
• Convectively Generated Gravity Waves
• HYDROLOGY, FLOODS AND DROUGHTS
• Overview
• Deserts and Desertification
• Drought
• Flooding
• Groundwater and Surface Water
• Modeling and Prediction
• Palmer Drought Severity Index
• Soil Moisture
• LAND-ATMOSPHERE INTERACTIONS
• Overview
• Canopy Processes
• Trace Gas Exchange
• LIDAR
• Atmospheric Sounding Introduction
• Backscatter
• Differential Absorption Lidar
• Doppler
• Raman
• Resonance
• Magnetosphere
• MESOSCALE METEOROLOGY
• Overview
• Cloud and Precipitation Bands
• Gust Fronts
• Hail and Hailstorms
• Mesoscale Convective Systems
• Microbursts
• Severe Storms
• Waterspouts
• Bow Echoes and Derecho
• Density Currents
• Convective Storms: Overview
• MESOSPHERE
• Atomic Species in the Mesopause Region
• Ionosphere
• Metal Layers
• Polar Summer Mesopause
• MIDDLE ATMOSPHERE
• Planetary Waves
• Polar Vortex
• Quasi-Biennial Oscillation
• Semiannual Oscillation
• Stratospheric Sudden Warmings
• Transport Circulation
• Zonal Mean Climatology
• MOUNTAIN METEOROLOGY
• Overview
• Cold Air Damming
• Downslope Winds
• Katabatic Winds
• Land and Sea Breezes
• Lee Vortices
• Lee Waves and Mountain Waves
• Orographic Effects: Lee Cyclogenesis
• Valley Winds
• NUMERICAL MODELS
• Chemistry Models
• Coupled Ocean-Atmosphere Models: Physical Processes
• General Circulation Models
• Methods
• Model Physics Parameterization
• Parameter Estimation
• Parameterization of Physical Processes: Clouds
• Parameterization of Physical Processes: Gravity Wave Fluxes
• Parameterization of Physical Processes: Turbulence and Mixing
• Spectral Models
• Mesoscale Atmospheric Modeling
• Cloud-System Resolving Modeling and Aerosols
• Large-Eddy Simulation
• Regional Prediction Models
• Convective Storm Modeling
• OBSERVATIONS PLATFORMS
• Balloons
• Buoys
• Kites
• Radiosondes
• Rockets
• OCEANOGRAPHIC TOPICS
• General Processes
• Surface/Wind Driven Circulation
• Thermohaline Circulation
• Water Types and Water Masses
• OPTICS, ATMOSPHERIC
• Optical Remote Sensing Instruments
• Airglow Instrumentation
• OZONE DEPLETION AND RELATED TOPICS
• Long-Term Ozone Changes
• Ozone as a UV Filter
• Ozone Depletion Potentials
• Photochemistry of Ozone
• Stratospheric Ozone Recovery
• Surface Ozone Effects on Vegetation
• Surface Ozone (Human Health)
• PALEOCLIMATOLOGY
• Ice Cores
• Varves
• RADAR
• Cloud Radar
• Incoherent Scatter Radar
• Mesosphere–Stratosphere–Troposphere and Stratosphere–Troposphere Radars and Wind Profilers
• Meteor Radar
• Polarimetric Doppler Weather Radar
• Precipitation Radar
• Synthetic Aperture Radar (Land Surface Applications)
• RADIATION TRANSFER IN THE ATMOSPHERE
• Radiation, Solar
• Absorption and Thermal Emission
• Cloud-Radiative Processes
• Non-Local Thermodynamic Equilibrium
• Scattering
• Ultraviolet Radiation
• Ultraviolet, Surface
• SATELLITES AND SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING
• Aerosol Measurements
• Earth’s Radiation Budget
• GPS Meteorology
• Measuring Ozone from Space – TOMS and SBUV
• Orbits
• Precipitation
• Remote Sensing: Cloud Properties
• Research
• Surface Wind and Stress
• Temperature Soundings
• Water Vapor
• SOLAR SYSTEM/SUN, ATMOSPHERES, EVOLUTION OF ATMOSPHERES
• Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere
• Planetary Atmospheres: Mars
• Planetary Atmospheres: Venus
• Solar Terrestrial Interactions: Climate Impact
• Solar Winds
• Meteors
• STATISTICAL METHODS
• Empirical Orthogonal Functions and Singular Vectors
• Data Analysis: Time Series Analysis
• STRATOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY TOPICS
• Overview
• Halogens
• Halogen Sources, Anthropogenic
• Halogen Sources, Natural (Methyl Bromide and Related Gases)
• HOx
• Hydrogen Budget
• Reactive Nitrogen (NOx and NOy)
• Stratospheric Water Vapor
• STRATOSPHERE/TROPOSPHERE EXCHANGE AND STRUCTURE
• Global Aspects
• Local Processes
• Tropopause
• SYNOPTIC METEOROLOGY
• Anticyclones
• Forecasting
• Weather Maps
• Cyclogenesis
• Extratropical Cyclones
• Fronts
• Fronts in the Lower Stratosphere
• Frontogenesis
• Jet Streaks
• Lake-Effect Storms
• Polar Lows
• Thermal Low
• THERMODYNAMICS
• Humidity Variables
• Moist (Unsaturated) Air
• Saturated Adiabatic Processes
• Thermosphere
• TROPICAL CYCLONES AND HURRICANES
• Overview and Theory
• Hurricane Dynamics
• Hurricane Predictability
• Hurricanes: Observation
• Tropical Cyclogenesis
• Tropical Cyclones and Climate Change
• Tropical Cyclones in the Western North Pacific
• Tropical Cyclones: Secondary Eyewall Formation
• TROPICAL METEOROLOGY AND CLIMATE
• El Niño and the Southern Oscillation: Observation
• El Niño and the Southern Oscillation: Theory
• Equatorial Waves
• Hadley Circulation
• Intertropical Convergence Zone
• Intraseasonal Oscillation (Madden–Julian Oscillation)
• Madden–Julian Oscillation: Skeleton and Conceptual Models
• Monsoon: Overview
• Monsoon: Dynamical Theory
• Monsoon: ENSO–Monsoon Interactions
• Tropical Climates
• Walker Circulation
• TROPOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY AND COMPOSITION
• Aerosols/Particles
• Aliphatic Hydrocarbons
• Aromatic Hydrocarbons
• Biogenic Hydrocarbons
• Cloud Chemistry
• H2
• Hydroxyl Radical
• Mercury
• Oxidizing Capacity
• Peroxyacetyl Nitrate
• Sulfur Chemistry, Organic
• Volatile Organic Compounds Overview: Anthropogenic
• TURBULENCE AND MIXING
• Overview
• Turbulence, Two Dimensional
• Turbulent Diffusion
• WEATHER FORECASTING
• Marine Meteorology
• Operational Meteorology
• Seasonal and Interannual Weather Prediction
• Severe Weather Forecasting
• Wildfire Weather
• Inadvertant Weather Modification
• Appendix 1. Physical Constants
• Appendix 2. Units and their SI Equivalents
• Appendix 3. Periodic Table of the Elements
• Appendix 4. The Geologic Time Scale